Aaron Burr Treason

We are all aware of Burr's famous duel with Hamilton but were you aware of the treason charges brought against him? The charge trying to steal land in the Louisiana Purchase. The evidence was a letter "supposedly" written by Burr. In the end the grand jury discovered the letter was written by Wilkinson in an attempt to frame Burr. Wilkinson defended his letter saying it was a copy he made because he'd lost the original. In the end Burr was not guilty and was never convicted of anything but the damage had been done.

You can read more about this trial at Reports of the trials of Colonel Aaron Burr

You can also read the subpoena given to Thomas Jefferson to testify at the trial. Located at the Library of Congress.

1877 Railroad Strike

For a good overview of the strike, I recommend starting with Wikipedia.

Another source would be History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850: 1877-1896 by James Ford Rhodes.

The strike was fueled by several things, one the decrease of the wages being paid to the employees and the 1873 depression. It probably became as violent as it was because of Taft and how he won the election. But all of that is speculating, which our characters might do in conversation. If you choose to use the strike in your novel be sure of the dates and the time it entered your area.

Currency Act of 1870

After the Civil War during the Reconstruction period there was need to unify the currency. Below is an excerpt from The Political History of the United States of America during the Reconstruction Period ©1871 that details the Currency Act of 1870 and those who voted for or against it. Also, if you aren't looking for detailed information Wikipedia has a short paragraph describing the Act.

BANKING AND CURRENCY.
AN ACT to provide for the redemption of the three per centum temporary loan certificates, and for an increase of national bank notes.
Beit enacted, dec, That $54,000,000, iu notes for circulation may be issued to national banking associations in addition to the $300,000,000 authorized by the 22d section of the "Act to provide a national currency secured by a pledge of United States bonds, and to provide for the circulation and redemption thereof," approved June 3, 1864; and the amount of notes so provided shall be furnished to banking associations organized or to be organized in those States and Territories having less than their proportion under the apportionment contemplated by the provisions of the " Act to amend an act to provide a national currency secured by a pledge of United States bonds, and to provide for the circulation and redemption thereof," approved March 3, 1865, and the bonds deposited with the Treasurer of the United States to secure the additional circulating notes herein authorized shall be of any description of bonds of the United States bearing interest in coin; but a new apportionment of the increased circulation herein provided for shall be made as soon as practicable, based upon the census of 1870: Provided, That if applications for the circulation herein authorized shall not be made within one year after the passage of this act, by banking associations organized or to be organized in States having less than their proportion, it shall be lawful for the Comptroller of the Currency to issue such circulation to banking associations applying for the same in other States or Territories having less than their proportion, giving the preference to such as have the greatest deficiency: And Provided further. That no banking association hereafter organized shall have a circulation in excess of $500,000.

Sec. 2. That at the end of each month after the passage of this act it shall be the duty of the Comptroller of the Currency to report to the Secretary of the Treasury the amount of circulating notes issued, under the provisions of the preceding section, to national banking associations during the previous month; whereupon the Secretary ol the Treasury shall redeem and cancel an amount of the three per centum temporary loan certificates issued under the acts of March 2, 1867, and July 25, 1868, not less than the amount of circulating notes so reported, and may, if necessary, in order to procure the presentation of such temporary loan certificates for redemption, give notice to the holders thereof, by publication or otherwise, that certain of said certificates (which shall be designated by number, date, and amount) shall cease to bear interest from and after a day to be designated in such notice, and that the certificates so designated shall no longer be available as any portion of the lawful money reserve in possession of any national banking association, and after the day designated in such notice no interest shall be paid on such certificates, and they shall not thereafter be counted as a part of the reserve of any banking association,

Sec. 3. That upon the deposit of any United States bonds, bearing interest payable in gold, with the Treasurer of the United States, in the manner prescribed in the 19th and 20th sections of the national currency act, it shall bo lawful for the Comptroller of the Currency to issue to the association making the same circulating notes of different denominations not less than $5, not exceeding in amount eighty per cent, of the par value of the bonds deposited, which notes shall bear upon their face the promise of the association to which they are issued to pay them upon presentation at the office of the association, in gold coin of the United States, and shall be redeemable upon such presentation in such coin: Provided, That no banking association organized under this section shall have a circulation in excess of $1,000,000.

Sec. 4. That every national banking association formed under the provisions of the preceding section of this act shall at all times keep on hand not less than twenty-five per cent, of its outstanding circulation in gold or silver coin of the United States, and shall receive at par in the payment of debts the gold notes of every other such banking association which at the time of such payments shall be redeeming its circulating notes in gold or silver coin of the United States.

Seo. 5. That every association organized for the purpose of issuing gold notes as provided in this act shall be subject to all the requirements and provisions of the national currency act, except the first clause of section 22, which limits the circulation of national banking associations to $300,000,000; the first clause of section 32, which, taken in connection with the preceding section, would require national banking associations organized in the city of San Francisco to redeem their circulating notes at par in the city of New York; and the last clause of section 32, which requires every national banking association to receive in payment of debts the notes of every other national banking association at par: Provided, That in applying the provisions and requirements of said act to the banking associations herein provided for the terms "lawful money "and "lawfulmoney of theUnitedStates," shall be held and construed to mean gold or silver coin of the United States.

Sec. 6. That to secure a more equitable distribution of the national banking currency, there may be issued circulating notes to banking associations organized in States and Territories having less than their proportion, as herein set forth; ana the amount of circulation in this section authorized shall, under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury, as it may be required for this purpose, be withdrawn, as herein provided, from banking associations organized in States having a circulation exceeding that provided for by the act entitled " An act to amend an act entitled ' An act to provide for a national banking currency secured by pledge of United States bonds, and to provide for the circulation and redemption thereof,' " approved March 3,1865, but the amount so withdrawn shall not exceed $25,000,000. The Comptroller of the Currency shall, under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury, make a statement showing the amount of circulation in each State and Territory, and the amount to he retired by each banking association in accordance with this section, and shall, when such redistribution of circulation is lequired, mako a requisition for such amount upon such banks, commencing with the bank" having a circulation exceeding $1,000,000 in States having an excess of circulation, and withdrawing their circulation in excess of $1,000,000, and then proceeding pro rata with other banks having a circulation exceeding $300,000 in States having the largest excess of circulation, and reducing the circulation of such banks in States having the greatest proportion in excess, leaving undisturbed the banks in States having a smaller proportion, until those in greater excess have been reduced to the same grade, and continuing thus to make the reduction provided for by this act until the full amount of $25,000,000 herein provided for shall be withdrawn; and the circulation so withdrawn shall be distributed among the States and Territories having less than their proportion, Boas to equalize the same; and it snail be the duty of the Comptroller of the Currency, under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury, forthwith to make a requisition for the amount thereof upon the banks above indicated as herein prescribed; and upon failure of such associations, or any of them, to return the amount so required within one year, it shall be the duty of the Comptroller of the Currency to sell at public auction, having given twenty days' notice thereof in one ' daily newspaper printed in Washington and one in New York city, an amount of bonds deposited by said association, as security for said circulation, equal to the circulation to be withdrawn from said association and not returned in compliance with such requisition; and the Comptroller of the Currency shall with the proceeds redeem so many of the notes of said banking association as they come into the treasury as will equal the amount required and not so returned, and shall pay the balance, if any, to such banking association: Provided, That no circulation shall be withdrawn under the provisions of this section until after the $54,000,000 granted in the first section shall have been taken up.

Sec 7. That after the expiration of six months from the passage of this act any banking association located in any State having more than its proportion of circulation may be removed to any State having less than its proportion of circulation, under such rules and regulations as the Comptroller of the Currency, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may require: Provided, That the amount of the issue ot said banks shall not be deducted from tbe amount of new issue provided for in this act. Approved July 13, 1870.

Final Vote.
In Senate, July 6, 1870. The bill, as printed above, being the report of the co.nmittee of conference last appointed, was 1 to withont a division.
Ik House, July 7, 1870.

Teas—Messrs. Allison, Ambler, Armstrong, Asper, Atwood, Ayer, Bailey, Banks, Benjamin, Bennett, Benton, Blair, Boles, Booker, Boyd, Back, Buckley, Burehard, Burdett, Roderick R. Butler, Cake, Cessna, Churchill, William T Clark,Sidney Clarke, Amasa Cobb, Coburn, Conger, Cook, Covode, Cowles, Dnrrall, Dickey, Donley, Duval, Dyer, Ferriss, Ferrv, Finkelnburg, Fisher, Garfield, Gllflllan. Harris, Hawley, Hays. Hill, Thomas L. Jones. Judd, Kelley, Knapp, Lash, Logan, Loughridge. McCarthy. McCrnry, McGrew, Mc Ken tic, Mercur, Eliakim H. Moore, Jesse H. Moore, William Moore, Morphis. Daniel J. Morrell, Myers, Negloy, O'Neill, Packard, Packer, Palmer, Peck, Poland, Porter, Prosser, Roots, Sawyer, Scofield, Lionel A. Sheldon, Porter Sheldon. John A. Smith, William J. Smith, Worthington C.Smith, William Smyth, Stevens, Stokes, Stonghton, Strickland, Taffe, Tanner, Taylor, Tillman, Tiimble, Upson, Van Horn, Cadwalader C. Washburn, William B. Washburn, Wheeler, Whitmore, Wilkinson, Willard, John T. Wilson—100.

Nats—Messrs. Adams, Archer, Amell, AxteU. Barnum, Beatty, Biggs, Bingham, Bird, George M. Brooks, Jama Brooks. Bumnton, Burr. Benjamin F. Butler, Calkin, Cleveland, Oinner. Cox, Crebs, Davis, Dickinsim, Dixon, Pox, Ela, Oelt, Haldeman, Ilamill, Hawkins. Hay, Hoar, Hooper, Ingersoll, Jenckes, Jolinsan, Julian. Kellogg, Krrr, Lawrence, Lewis, Marshall, Mayluim. McCormick, McXecly, Morgan, Mungen. XMack, Orth, Paino, roller, RamtaU, Runs, Rice, Sanford, Sargent. Schumaker, Shanks, Stocum, Joseph S. Smith, Starkweather, Stevenson, Stiles, Stone, Strong, Svrann, Sweeney, Townsend, > Twichell, Tyner, Tan Auken, Van Trump, Van Wyck, Voorhces, Ward, Welker, Williams, Winchester, Woodvmrd —77.

Mexican Tariff

Below comes from The Merchant's Magazine ©1850 publishing the entire notice from the Oct 4, 1845 General Congress session.


THE NEW MEXICAN TARIFF.
Official notice is hereby given, by the undersigned, of the following alterations made by the General Congress during its present session, in the Mexican tariff of 4th October, 1845:—
Article 1.—The ports open to foreign commerce, and to scaleage and coasting, are Vera Cruz, Tampico, Matamoras, Campeche, Sisal, and Tebasco, in the Gulf of Mexico; and Acapulcu, San Bias, Huratalco, Manzanillo, and Mazatlan, in the Pacific.

Article 2.—The ports open to the coasting trade are Guaymas, and Altata, in the Golf of California; Isla del Carmen, Goazacoalcos, Alvarado, Tecoluta, Santecomapan, Soto la Marina, Tuxpan, in the Gulf of Mexico; Bacalar, on the eastern coast of Yucatan; Tonala, on the Pacific; Santa Maria, in the Gulf of Tehuantepec; and La Par, in 'the Gulf of California.

Article 3.—Frontier custom-houses arc established en la Frontera del Norte, Matamoros, Camargo, Presidio del Norte, and en la Frontera lei Sur, Comitan, and Tuatla Chico.

Article 4.—In addition to the smaller vessels in the revenue service, as per the deewe of 13th July, 1840, the government may establish in the Gulf of Mexico a steamer and six revenue cutters, and on the Pacific coast, a steamer and seven revenue cutters, the expenses of repairs, wages, and provisioning of which, shall be included in those of administration. The government will issue orders in regard to the service of these vessels, and to their cruising, as also to the officers of the custom-houses to which they may be attached.

Article 5.—The government will form, and submit to Congress for approval, an estimate of cost of building custom-house, stores and offices, in those places where there •re none.

Aeticle 6.—The custom-houses for the coasting trade belong to the general government, and will be under the control of the nearest maritime custom-house.

Article 7.—The importation of side and fire arms is permitted on payment of an import duty of $4 per quintal, gross weight. The government will take such measures as to prevent their introduction being injurious to public order and tranquillity.

Article 8.—The 18th article of the tariff is abolished, and the goods therein specified shall pay an ad valorem duty of 40 per cent on the value of the invoice, except the following articles, which shall continue to pay the duties designated in said article, viz:—
Aceite de trementina o agua-ras. Albayalde seccoo en aceita. Agua de almendra amarga, de colonia, de espliego, o de la banda, de laurel cereso de la reyna, y cualesquiera otras aguas, compuestas. destiladas, o esprituosas. Almireces. Alinizcle en grauo. Almizcle en zunon. Alquitran y brea, pez de todas clasos, trementina. Alumbre. Amarillo cromo. Amarillo de Napoles. Arsenite de cobro o verde de Scheie y el verde de Schweinfart o verde de Almania. Asfalto o chiele prieto. Azul de cobalto. Azul de esmalto. Azul de Ultramar. Barnices de Alcohol y resina. Bennellon. Betun de Judea o asfalto. Blanco de Espana y de plomo. Bol de armenia. Caparrosa azul o sulfato de cobre, blanca o sulfato de Zinc, verde o sulfato de fierro. Carbon animal o negro animal Cardemillo o verde gris. Carmin. Cola de boca. Cola fuerte. Cola de pescado en buche. Colores de todas clases no especificados. Crisols en barro refractario. Crisoles de plombagina y de porcelana y bizcocho. Esmeril. Esponjas nas y corrientes. Estractos de Campeche para tintes. Fosforos. Gomalaca. Jaldre. Licores compuestos, como ratafias,

Article 9.—The import duties established by the tariff of October 4th, 1845, remain reduced to 60 per cent in conformity with the decree of 3d May, 1848.

Article 10.—The reduction made in the import duties does not affect the inferior or consumption duties, nor those of averia of 1 per cent, nor those of averia of 2 per cent, specified in the decrees of 31st March, 1838, and 28th February, 1843, these shall continue to be collected as heretofore.

Article 11.—The export duties on the precious metals shall be as follows:—
Oro acunado o labrado, 2 per cent
Plata acunada, 3| per cent.
Plata labrada quintada, 44; per cent.
Copello o pura, labrada en munecos con certification de haber pagado los derechos de quinto, 44; per cent

Article 12.—The circulation duty on money is reduced to 2 per cent, and will be collected on entry of money in the ports.

Article 13.—The government cannot issue orders on the maritime custom-houses for the payment of duties effected, or to be effected. Whenever the General Treasury, or the General Direction of Maritime Custom-houses, receive orders of this kind, to communicate to the respective custom-houses, or any other orders that they may consider illegal, or injurious to the Public Treasury, they will notify the government and Collectors of said custom-houses; in case of receiving them directly, shall also be under the same obligation. If, notwithstanding the observations they make, the government should insist, they shall comply, and he or they who shall have made the observations shall send to the Contaduria Mayor the order certified by the respective Contador, that they may be freed from responsibility ; the Contaduria Mayor taking note of it for the ' ends to which it may give rise, will pass it, with a note corresponding, to the Chamber of Deputies, or, in recess of Congress, to the Consejo de Gobierno; the Contadores Mayores, in case of omission, incurring the penalty of suspension of office for two years, besides other penalties vhich the laws impose on them.

Article 14.—The penalty of confiscation of vessels, imposed on captains by article 84, is substituted by a fine equal to double the value of the goods omitted—all the remainder of said article continues in full force. The penalties imposed by article 35 will be substituted by a fine of from 8200 to $1,600.

Article 15.—The government will cause to be published within thirty days, counted from 24th November, 1849, the date of this law, the regulations of the maritime frontier and coasting custom-houses, simplifying the system of accounts and of despatch, without altering the basis of this law, nor of the actual tariff. The government, during the said period, will also organize and regulate the coast guard service.

Article 16.—The regulations which the government will issue, in conformity with this law, cannot be altered nor modified without the express authority of the general Congress.

Article 17.—The frontier custom-houses established by this law will be characterized as provisional; meantime, those to be so hereafter, are not designated, the employees of them observing the 4th part of article 1 of the decree of 13th May, 1840.
Abticlb 18.—The tariff of 4th October, 1845, remains in force, with the additions and explanation that has been made to it in all that may not be altered by this present aw. Jose Ramon Pacheco, vice-presidente de la Camara de diputados. Crispiniano del Castillo, vice-presidente del senado. Felix Veistegui, diputado secretario. Juan Rodriguez de San Miguel, senador secretario. Por tanto mando se imprima, publique, arcule, y se le de el debido cumplimiento. Palacio del gobierno federal en Mexico, a 24 de Noviembre, de 1849. Jose Joaquin de Herrera. Francisco Florriaga.

WM. GEO. STEWART.
New York, January 4th, 1850. Vice-Consul of Mexico.

Politics Whigs

The Whig party was a short lived party of two decades but it was an integral part of the Second Party System for the United States. It operated from 1833-1856. The name was chosen for the American Whigs of 1776 who found for independence. The name was also used because the American Whigs were opposing autocratic rule.

We had four presidents who were Whigs, William Henry Harrison, John Tyler, Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore. Both Harrison and Taylor died in office leaving their VP's to hold the office.

The party fell apart because of anti-slavery faction. Lincoln left the party and ran as a Republican when he ran for president.

Politics: Democratic Party

In Jan. 15, 1870 the first use of the donkey, the symbol of the democratic party, was first used. Thomas Nast a caricaturist working for Harper's Weekly did the illustration.

The 19th century was the beginning of the Democratic and Republican Party with regard to control of politics in the U.S.

1887 Elections

This comes from Houghtalings Handbook ©1887
Time for holding State and Territorial Elections

Alabama . . . . . . First Monday in August
Arizona Territory . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Arkansas . . . . . . First Tuesday in September
California . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Colorado . . . . . . First Tuesday in October
Connecticut . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Dakota Territory . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Delaware . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Florida . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Georgia . . . . . . First Wednesday in October
Idaho Territory . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Illinois . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Indiana . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Indian Territory . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Iowa . . . . . . Second Tuesday in October
Kansas . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Kentucky . . . . . . First Monday in August
Louisiana . . . . . . First Monday in November
Maine . . . . . . Second Monday even years bien. in September
Maryland . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Massachusetts . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Michigan . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Minnesota . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Mississippi . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Missouri . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Montana Territory . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Nebraska . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Nevada . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
New Hampshire . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
New Jersey . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
New Mexico Territory . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
New York . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
North Carolina . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Ohio . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Oregon. . . . . . First Monday in June
Pennsylvania . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Rhode Island. . . . . . First Wednesday in April
South Carolina . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Tennessee . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Texas . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Utah Territory . . . . . . First Monday in August
Vermont. . . . . . First Tuesday in September
Virginia . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Washington Territory . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
West Virginia . . . . . . Second Tuesday in October
Wisconsin . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November
Wyoming Territory . . . . . . Tuesday after First Monday in November

Taxes

There was no annual Federal Income Tax in the 19th century but the folks of that century still had to pay taxes. Here's a brief sketch of some of the taxes.

1812 because of the cost of the War of 1812 the nation's first income taxes were paid. Gold, silverware, jewelry and watches.
1817 did away with taxes and started to rely on tariffs on imported goods.
1862 Congress enacted the first income tax law
1862 Commissioner of Internal Revenue established.
1868 Congress enacted a tobacco and Spirits tax
1872 Eliminated the Income Tax law
1894-1895 Income tax returned
1895 Supreme Court decided the tax unconstitutional

Immigration in the 19th Century

Immigration in America started with the landing of Jamestown, it's been a part of our country since day one. However, after the Revolutionary War we've had a migration of immigrants to the United States. I mention this because there seem to be pockets of time and place where several from one country would settle here in the states.

On a website for Laiden University there's an interesting article about who came when and why. Here's the link

I bring this up because I've used several ethnic groups while writing my historical fiction novels, Corduroy Road to Love is one such example. When researching an area to set a novel in, research the emigration into that community. You might just stumble across some interesting information.

Currently I'm researching the Dutch and German migration to a section of New York where my husband's family find some of their roots. Most of them came as farmers when the opportunity to have their own farm, approximately 100 acres of land, to build their home and futures on.

Below is a short list of some of the Emigrations to America it is not exhaustive but just to give you a quick overview.
British throughout most of the century
European Immigrants to Antebellum US 1840-1860
Irish (Potatoe Famine) 1845-1851
Chinese (Gold Rush California) 1850-1882
Italian 1876 thru 1976
Germans 1830 largest years 1854-1894

Leland Stanford

Today's excerpt comes from "Leaders of the 19th Century" By Evelyn Harriet Walker © 1900

LELAND STANFORD

UNITED STATES SENATOR AND RAILROAD

MAGNATE

"We do not believe there can be superfluous education. As a man cannot have too much wealth and intelligence, so he cannot be too highly educated."

—Leland Stanford.

'"*YT HAS been of late years a mat- *J ter of complaint, not always well grounded, that the United States Senate is being filled up with the possessors or representatives of great wealth. It is true that there are many millionaires in that body. It may be true that some of them have attained their positions merely because of their wealth. But there are some who began in the humblest walks of life and who attained their fortunes by hard work and unremitting labors for the development of the resources of the country. Reaching mature years, and becoming the Leland Stanford. possessors of vast wealth and the

controllers of enormous industrial interests, they are not the representatives of moneybags merely; they are types of that American pluck and enterprise and those traits of industry that have built up the greatness of the nation. As such, he would indeed be bold who would challenge their right to sit in the highest assembly of the country as representatives of the American people.

Leland Stanford, whose best known memorial is the Pacific Railroad, was born March 9, 1824, near Albany, N. Y. He was the son of a well-to-do farmer of good old Puritan ancestry, and led the life of a farmer's boy. He grew up sturdy, industrious and intelligent. After a few winters at the village school he went, at the age of seventeen, to Cazenovia Seminary, where Senator Hawley, Charles Dudley Warner, Bishop Andrews, Philip D. Armour, and other men prominent in American business and literature, received their early education. Here he was known as a careful, industrious student, with a faculty of taking pains, which has been said to be a mark of genius. Next he went to Albany and studied law, but after three years there went to the West. He stopped for a time in Chicago and might have settled there for good, but one day he was assailed by a perfect cloud of bloodthirsty mosquitoes, for which he had a special aversion, and that trifling circumstance impelled him to pack his trunk and leave the place at once. He next stopped at Fort Washington near Milwaukee, where he practiced law for three years and managed to save some $2,000, nearly all of which he invested in a library of law books. One night his office took fire, and with its contents was entirely destroyed, leaving him almost penniless. He sold out a little timber land which he had purchased, and managed to raise nearly $1,000. With that, in 1852, he set out for the Pacific coast.



His first settlement there was at Sacramento, where he opened a general store. Those were flush times in California, and within three years he had made more than $10,000. He kept on at the same business a while longer, steadily increasing his fortune, and in ten years was worth about $100,000. In 1861 he was chosen Governor of California, and then struck out for a wider field of activity. In his earlier years he had heard an Albany engineer talking about the feasibility of constructing a railroad in Oregon. Indeed, he had even hinted at the construction of a railroad line clear across the continent. Of course such schemes were then considered chimerical, but now that young Stanford was actually on the ground and appreciated the needs and the possibilities of the Pacific coast, he recalled these hints with interest.

His idea was to build a railroad from Sacramento over the Coast Range and Sierra Nevada mountains to the mining camps on the borders of Nevada. At that time the rates of freightage on all supplies for the camps were enormously high, and it was evident that if such a railroad could be built it would be exceedingly profitable. One engineer looked over the proposed route and said he thought the road could be built. Thereupon Mr. Stanford organized a company under the California State law, and with Messrs. Hunt- ington and Crocker went on horseback over the route. When they reached the top of the mountains they stopped, dismounted, and sat down to discuss the situation. At their feet was a precipice dropping perpendicularly down a quarter of a mile. The idea of building a railroad through such a region was startling; such a thing had never been attempted in the world. One of the little company said that they would have to build a derrick by which to lift the cars up to the top of the mountain, but Mr. Stanford was confident that although the difficulties were enormous the road could be built and operated successfully.

They returned to Sacramento and arranged for the construction of the road. As projected, the line was about 150 miles long. To build it, took the labor of 3,000 white men and 10,000 Chinamen for four years. Indeed, without "Chinese cheap labor" the road probably could not have been built at all. But it was finished, competed successfully with the mule teams and oxen that had formerly carried supplies to the camps, and soon became enormously profitable. With this done, the government was encouraged to go forward with its trans-continental railroad schemes. With these Mr. Stanford was conspicuously connected, and it was largely due to his energy, enterprise and enthusiasm that the stupendous task was carried to successful completion. He has also identified himself very largely with other railroad enterprises on the Pacific coast; he is an enormous land owner, and his wheat farms and vineyards are the pride of the State.

A few years ago Mr. Stanford's only child, Leland, a promising young man of eighteen years, died with Roman fever at Florence. This was a great shock to Mr. and Mrs. Stanford, and they determined to erect an unequaled memorial to their boy. With this purpose in view, Mr. Stanford called to his aid the best educators, and with characteristic energy completed plans for the "Leland Stanford, Jr., University," with an endowment of more than $20,000,000, in lands and other property, which has increased greatly in value within the last five years. This endowment includes the Vina ranch of 55,000 acres in Tehama county, on which is the largest vineyard in the world; the Girdly wheat ranch in Butte county, comprising 21,000 acres; and the Palo Alto ranch and stock farm of 7,200 acres. The total value of these three ranches is $5,300,000. He has made at Palo Alto, California, an institution for boys and girls which for literary and scientific learning is second to none in the world. It affords to its students every opportunity for learning the useful professions, businesses and trades of American life. Young men and women are there able to learn agriculture, mining, engineering, carpentry and building, the construction of machinery, or any other vocation for which nature has fitted him and to which his or her tastes attract them. To the development of this magnificent scheme of practical philanthropy Mr. Stanford dedicated the remainder of his life.

Another enterprise with which Mr. Stanford's name is inseparably connected is the invention and development of instantaneous photography, especially as applied to the picturing of men and animals in motion. The conventional pictures of horses galloping and trotting did not satisfy him: he was convinced that their attitudes as represented were unnatural and impossible. He therefore sent for a skilled practical photographer, gave him unlimited means with which to prosecute his experiments, and himself indicated the lines on which those experiments should be conducted. The results were astonishing and highly successful; not only were perfect photographic pictures secured of horses galloping and trotting at their utmost speed, but equally satisfactory pictures were produced of birds flying, of men running, leaping and wrestling, and even of a cannon ball in full flight, just as it was discharged from the mouth' of the cannon. These achievements have been of the highest value to painters and sculptors, and have almost revolutionized the art of illustration.

Mr. Stanford had little taste for public life. He was essentially a business man and developer of industrial resources. But he was persuaded, in 1861, to accept election as Governor of California, and served in that office with ability and distinction. In 1887 he w:as chosen a Senator of the United States, and in that office made his mark, not as an orator or debater, but as a careful, painstaking and accomplished committee-man; and it is in the committees that the most important work of Congress is accomplished.

He was a notable and much-observed figure on the floor of the Senate; a tall, well-proportioned man, with gray moustache and whiskers; a full round head, thickly thatched with gray hair; a strong nose; a large and finely developed forehead, and an expressive and masterful mouth. His whole air was that of a man of resolute action, able to undertake and execute great deeds and to impress his potent individuality upon all his associates. Despite his great wealth, his life was always a simple and unostentatious one. He was one of the most plainly dressed men in public life at Washington. His clothes were of plain black material, and jewelry was conspicuous by its absence from his person.

When in California the Senator spent nearly all his leisure at his country estate. His wife, who was Miss Lathrop, of Albany, is eminent for her practical charities. Senator Stanford's wealth at his death, June 2Oth, 1893, was estimated at $50.000.000, the most of which will go to the University at Mrs. Stanford's death. His wife, who was ever in sympathy with him, was made his executor.

1888 Political Cartoons

Below are half a dozen political cartoons taken from an 1888 publication called "The Public." Politics were talked about during the 19th Century as often as they are today.