Yesterday I posted about the early part of the 19th century and specifically the oil lamps. In addition to oil lamps there were gas lights and electric lights. Below is an outline of the history of electric lamps throughout the century.
1801 First electric arc lamp was invented in England by Sir Humphrey Davy.
1854 First true lightbulb invented by Henricg Globel of Germany
1857 Fluorescent lamp was introduced in France by A.E. Becquerel
1875 Henry Woodward and Matthew Evans patented a lightbulb.
1879 Thomas Edison improved the incandescent light
1880 Edison's patent was granted.
Practically speaking you won't have electric lamps in the homes of your characters set prior to the 1880's. Another interesting texture to oil and gas lamps is the smell, keep that in mind when writing as well. Remember to use the five senses when describing what your characters are experiencing.
Showing posts with label 1880. Show all posts
Showing posts with label 1880. Show all posts
Friday, August 25, 2017
Tuesday, August 1, 2017
Clip Boards of the 19th Century called Letter-Clips
A question a while back on a historical writer's loop was searching for when clipboards were in use during the 19th century. Thanks to Carla for her links to the email loop with the answers that gave me further direction in answering this question.
Here are Carla's references:
1880
An Attorney General's report 1880 lists the item.
1887
The Writer Vol. 1-2 referencing a letter-clip with a description of the board.
I found some earlier references:
1842
Below is an image of a letter clip in 1842 from The Practical Mechanice & Engineer's Magazine Vol. 1 Page 32.
The same image is in another magazine a year earlier 1841.
1865
Referenced in the Household documents of an estate.
1871
Referenced in a Patent book as similar to a letter-clip.
1874
A Practical Dictionary with a description of the item.
1883
The New Letter-Clip
Here are Carla's references:
1880
An Attorney General's report 1880 lists the item.
1887
The Writer Vol. 1-2 referencing a letter-clip with a description of the board.
I found some earlier references:
1842
Below is an image of a letter clip in 1842 from The Practical Mechanice & Engineer's Magazine Vol. 1 Page 32.
1865
Referenced in the Household documents of an estate.
1871
Referenced in a Patent book as similar to a letter-clip.
1874
A Practical Dictionary with a description of the item.
1883
The New Letter-Clip
Monday, July 3, 2017
Greene River Flooding 1880
Below is a clipping from Keowee Courier, Feb. 19, 1880 that started me on the journey of discovering more about this flooding. My question was, why was it Flooding in Feb.? Here's the article:
On further research I answered my question with this information: "the warm Chinook Wind from the north" would come during the winter months and melt the heavy snowfall in the mountains and also cause heavy rains.
The loss of business makes for interesting writing material. I also found a business who built above the highest flood water for their building to avoid the nearly constant river floods.
On further research I answered my question with this information: "the warm Chinook Wind from the north" would come during the winter months and melt the heavy snowfall in the mountains and also cause heavy rains.
The loss of business makes for interesting writing material. I also found a business who built above the highest flood water for their building to avoid the nearly constant river floods.
Thursday, April 13, 2017
Personal Hygiene 1880
I was reading through "Home Nursing, and how to help in cases of Accident" by Samuel Benton ©1880 and came across this informative chapter on personal hygiene. I've highlighted a couple of paragraphs that I can see myself taking advantage of in building conflict between characters. Enjoy!
In re-papering a room always take care to have the old paper removed; fancy living or sleeping in a room, as many people do, with the wall papers four or five deep, each one with the exhalations of a generation in process of decomposition. A separate bed should be provided for everyone in the house. Especially should children be prohibited from sleeping together, contaminating each other with their excretions from lungs and skin; it is even worse for a child habitually to sleep with a grown-up person, they only become pale and consumptive. Before getting into bed do not leave your day wearing apparel folded up in a heap, but separate each article so that it may be aired, especially those articles worn nearest the skin.
Under-linen and flannel should be changed at least twice a week; never wear any under-garment by day which is used at night. Always throw back the bedding, and expose it, especially the blankets, to fresh air and sunlight in getting up in the morning. Never fold up a nightshirt, but hang it on a peg to air, or spread it on the back of a chair.
Boys and girls, if left to dress themselves, will usually get out of bed, jump into their clothes, sponge their face and hands, and come down stairs. Children should be taught how to wash all over with soap and water, and rub themselves dry with a rough towel.
Tight-fitting clothes over the chest and round the waist must be prohibited.
Use stocking suspenders in preference to garters, but if the latter are used, always wear them above the knee; when garters are put on below the knee they hinder the venous current of blood towards the heart, and so engender swollen legs, varicose veins and ulcers. High-heeled boots and shoes alter the perpendicular line of the body, and cause fatigue, pain and deformity, also tight boots are a great mistake; to avoid corns and bunions wear boots which allow plenty of room for the toes, and for walking have thick firm soles.
It need only be mentioned with respect to corsets and tight stays, that these things should not be worn. Young growing girls should be encouraged to practise gymnastics on a small scale; it strengthens the spinal and other muscles, also increases the chest capacity. A trapeze and parallel bars can be erected in a dressing room or nursery, and dumb-bells supplied, at a very small cost.
In re-papering a room always take care to have the old paper removed; fancy living or sleeping in a room, as many people do, with the wall papers four or five deep, each one with the exhalations of a generation in process of decomposition. A separate bed should be provided for everyone in the house. Especially should children be prohibited from sleeping together, contaminating each other with their excretions from lungs and skin; it is even worse for a child habitually to sleep with a grown-up person, they only become pale and consumptive. Before getting into bed do not leave your day wearing apparel folded up in a heap, but separate each article so that it may be aired, especially those articles worn nearest the skin.
Under-linen and flannel should be changed at least twice a week; never wear any under-garment by day which is used at night. Always throw back the bedding, and expose it, especially the blankets, to fresh air and sunlight in getting up in the morning. Never fold up a nightshirt, but hang it on a peg to air, or spread it on the back of a chair.
Boys and girls, if left to dress themselves, will usually get out of bed, jump into their clothes, sponge their face and hands, and come down stairs. Children should be taught how to wash all over with soap and water, and rub themselves dry with a rough towel.
Tight-fitting clothes over the chest and round the waist must be prohibited.
Use stocking suspenders in preference to garters, but if the latter are used, always wear them above the knee; when garters are put on below the knee they hinder the venous current of blood towards the heart, and so engender swollen legs, varicose veins and ulcers. High-heeled boots and shoes alter the perpendicular line of the body, and cause fatigue, pain and deformity, also tight boots are a great mistake; to avoid corns and bunions wear boots which allow plenty of room for the toes, and for walking have thick firm soles.
It need only be mentioned with respect to corsets and tight stays, that these things should not be worn. Young growing girls should be encouraged to practise gymnastics on a small scale; it strengthens the spinal and other muscles, also increases the chest capacity. A trapeze and parallel bars can be erected in a dressing room or nursery, and dumb-bells supplied, at a very small cost.
Saturday, March 18, 2017
50 Largest Cities 1880, 1850
Below is a graph of the largest cities in America from census reports. 1880 is in the left hand column and 1850 is the right. Charleston, SC is highlighted showing it's decline from 1850 to 1880.
If you'd like to view the original source here is a link
Thursday, March 16, 2017
Gentlemen's Hat
There are a wide variety of hats used during the 19th century. We see in our minds eye a top hat that Abraham Lincoln would use. The caps that those serving during the civil war wore and we even imagine the Stetson's hat from Texas fame (of course Stetson's shop was in Philadelphia, PA). Although he did invent the hat while in Colorado. Stetson retailed his hat business and by the end of the 19th century there were 150 whole merchants around the country.
Below is an excerpt from the Library of universal knowledge ©1880 and gives a brief description of how hats were made, specifically in the earlier half of the 19th century.
HAT, a well-known species of head-covering, which has assumed various characters. What we understand by a hat is a fabric of felt, or a silk material used as a substitute for felt. . .
The growing scarcity of beaver-fur led to attempts to substitute a cloth formed of silk plush, drawn over a pasteboard frame, about 1810. These were not very successful; and hats of wool or beaver-felt were common until about 1840. The high cost of beaver at length forced on the improvement of silk hats, and now the beaver is almost entirely superseded; while the fabrication of silk hats has been carried to great perfection not only in England, but in continental countries and the United States. The silk hat consist of a body and rim, usually made of two or three layers of cotton-cloth saturated with varnishes, to give the fabric stiffness, and make it waterproof. These are molded on wooden blocks according to the fashion of the day; and when the desired shape is produced, the whole is carefully furnished over with lac and dammar varnish, and, before dry, the fine silk plush is applied with great nicety, so as to prevent the seams being perceived; it is then trimmed with silk braid on the edge of the brim, and a silken band round the junction of the body with the brim; and the lining of leather and thin silk being put in, it is complete. Lightness, gloss, and durability are the prime qualities of the silk hat; and in these respects the hats of New-York manufacture deserve a high commendation. Very excellent hats are made in London, Paris, and Edinburgh; but they are heavier than those of America.
Below is an excerpt from the Library of universal knowledge ©1880 and gives a brief description of how hats were made, specifically in the earlier half of the 19th century.
HAT, a well-known species of head-covering, which has assumed various characters. What we understand by a hat is a fabric of felt, or a silk material used as a substitute for felt. . .
The growing scarcity of beaver-fur led to attempts to substitute a cloth formed of silk plush, drawn over a pasteboard frame, about 1810. These were not very successful; and hats of wool or beaver-felt were common until about 1840. The high cost of beaver at length forced on the improvement of silk hats, and now the beaver is almost entirely superseded; while the fabrication of silk hats has been carried to great perfection not only in England, but in continental countries and the United States. The silk hat consist of a body and rim, usually made of two or three layers of cotton-cloth saturated with varnishes, to give the fabric stiffness, and make it waterproof. These are molded on wooden blocks according to the fashion of the day; and when the desired shape is produced, the whole is carefully furnished over with lac and dammar varnish, and, before dry, the fine silk plush is applied with great nicety, so as to prevent the seams being perceived; it is then trimmed with silk braid on the edge of the brim, and a silken band round the junction of the body with the brim; and the lining of leather and thin silk being put in, it is complete. Lightness, gloss, and durability are the prime qualities of the silk hat; and in these respects the hats of New-York manufacture deserve a high commendation. Very excellent hats are made in London, Paris, and Edinburgh; but they are heavier than those of America.
Friday, February 10, 2017
Broom Making
Below is the reprint of a blog post from Sept, 2010. Of all my posts this one has brought about a fair amount of attention. However, I want to add to this post with a link to Youtube where Jack Martin shows how they make an 1850 Shaker Style broom.
Brooms have been around for eons, the question I've been trying to answer is when did the first broom factories start in America.
In 1841 in Sussex I find the listing of 65 broom-makers
A list of immigration to Missouri in 1867 listed several boom-makers
I found a disabled soldiers Broom-factory in 1875
1881 I found an expense report that line item a broom factory in a Missouri Penitentiary in 1880
And I found a grocery store owner in 1888 took payment of a broom making machine in exchange for food, then proceeded to have a very successful broom factory in the late 19th century into the 20th century. In fact, the business is still in operations today.
So, as of this moment, I do not know when the first broom factory developed in America. If you have a source with additional information, I'd love to hear it.
Below is a list of Broom & Brush Factory jobs, from the "Classified index of occupations by the United States," © 1921
Binder, broom or brush factory.
Borer, broom or brush factory.
Box maker, broom or brush factory.
Broom or brush maker, broom or brush
factory.
Broom or brush maker (not in factory).
Broom or brush maker (n. s.).
Buffer, broom or brush factory.
Buncher, broom or brush factory.
Comber, broom or brush factory.
Cutter, broom or brush factory.
Drawer, broom or brush factory.
Brooms have been around for eons, the question I've been trying to answer is when did the first broom factories start in America.
In 1841 in Sussex I find the listing of 65 broom-makers
A list of immigration to Missouri in 1867 listed several boom-makers
I found a disabled soldiers Broom-factory in 1875
1881 I found an expense report that line item a broom factory in a Missouri Penitentiary in 1880
And I found a grocery store owner in 1888 took payment of a broom making machine in exchange for food, then proceeded to have a very successful broom factory in the late 19th century into the 20th century. In fact, the business is still in operations today.
So, as of this moment, I do not know when the first broom factory developed in America. If you have a source with additional information, I'd love to hear it.
Below is a list of Broom & Brush Factory jobs, from the "Classified index of occupations by the United States," © 1921
Binder, broom or brush factory.
Borer, broom or brush factory.
Box maker, broom or brush factory.
Broom or brush maker, broom or brush
factory.
Broom or brush maker (not in factory).
Broom or brush maker (n. s.).
Buffer, broom or brush factory.
Buncher, broom or brush factory.
Comber, broom or brush factory.
Cutter, broom or brush factory.
Drawer, broom or brush factory.
Friday, January 13, 2017
Telephone Timeline for 19th Century
March 10, 1876 Alexander Graham Bell yelled those now famous words "Come here Mr. Watson, I want to see you!" We all accept that to be the first monumental moment of the invention that would change our lives for ever. Below are a few other dates surrounding the history of the telephone during the 19th century.
1877 July The Bell Telephone Company was formed by Gardiner Hubbard. Watson oversaw the production of the first telephones in The Charles Williams Shop. Bell left for England opting out of the day to day operations of the company.
By the end of 1877 three thousand telephones were in service.
mid 1878 10,000 phones in service. Hubbard named Theodore Vail as the new general manager of the Bell Company.
1878 manuel switchboard was invented.
1879 Telephone subscribers begin to have designated telephone numbers
1880 Long distance service was established
1880's first "metallic" circuits were installed. Changing from one wire to two wire to reduce the extreme static noise from one wire.
1885 The American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T) is formed.
1891 Almon Strowger invented an "automatic" telephone allowing him to dial a number without waiting for an operator. The first one Strowger switch goes into operation in 1892
1899 Bell company had 800,000 phones in service.
Rural independent territories had 600,000
1877 July The Bell Telephone Company was formed by Gardiner Hubbard. Watson oversaw the production of the first telephones in The Charles Williams Shop. Bell left for England opting out of the day to day operations of the company.
By the end of 1877 three thousand telephones were in service.
mid 1878 10,000 phones in service. Hubbard named Theodore Vail as the new general manager of the Bell Company.
1878 manuel switchboard was invented.
1879 Telephone subscribers begin to have designated telephone numbers
1880 Long distance service was established
1880's first "metallic" circuits were installed. Changing from one wire to two wire to reduce the extreme static noise from one wire.
1885 The American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T) is formed.
1891 Almon Strowger invented an "automatic" telephone allowing him to dial a number without waiting for an operator. The first one Strowger switch goes into operation in 1892
1899 Bell company had 800,000 phones in service.
Rural independent territories had 600,000
Monday, December 12, 2016
Winners of the League Base-Ball Championship
From Houghtaling's Handbook ©1887
Winners of the League Base-Ball Championship
The following were the winners of the championship of the National Base-Ball League for the years named below:
1886 - Chicago Club. . . Won 90 games, and lost 34 games
1885 - Chicago Club . . . Won 87 games and lost 25 games
1884 - Providence Club . . . Won 84 games and lost 28 games
1883 - Boston Club . . . Won 63 games and lost 35 games
1882 - Chicago Club . . . Won 55 games and lost 29 games
1881 - Chicago Club . . . Won 56 games and lost 28 games
1880 - Chicago Club . . . Won 67 games and lost 17 games
1879 - Providence Club . . . Won 59 games and lost 25 games
1878 - Boston Club . . . Won 41 games and lost 19 games
1877 - Boston Club . . . Won 31 games and lost 17 games
1876 - Chicago Club . . . Won 52 games and lost 14 games
(end quote)
1876 was the first year of the National League of Professional Baseball. It organized with 8 teams. The Boston Red Stockings (also called the Boston Red Caps), Chicago White Stockings, Cincinnati Red Legs (also called the Cincinnati Red Stockings), Hartford Dark Blues, Louisville Grays, Philadelphia Athletics, Brooklyn Mutuals (also called the New York Mutuals) & St. Louis Browns (also called the St. Louis Brown Stockings). There were 70 games for the season starting April 22nd and ending Oct. 21st.
For more information about this first year of professional baseball check out The Baseball Almanac
Winners of the League Base-Ball Championship
The following were the winners of the championship of the National Base-Ball League for the years named below:
1886 - Chicago Club. . . Won 90 games, and lost 34 games
1885 - Chicago Club . . . Won 87 games and lost 25 games
1884 - Providence Club . . . Won 84 games and lost 28 games
1883 - Boston Club . . . Won 63 games and lost 35 games
1882 - Chicago Club . . . Won 55 games and lost 29 games
1881 - Chicago Club . . . Won 56 games and lost 28 games
1880 - Chicago Club . . . Won 67 games and lost 17 games
1879 - Providence Club . . . Won 59 games and lost 25 games
1878 - Boston Club . . . Won 41 games and lost 19 games
1877 - Boston Club . . . Won 31 games and lost 17 games
1876 - Chicago Club . . . Won 52 games and lost 14 games
(end quote)
1876 was the first year of the National League of Professional Baseball. It organized with 8 teams. The Boston Red Stockings (also called the Boston Red Caps), Chicago White Stockings, Cincinnati Red Legs (also called the Cincinnati Red Stockings), Hartford Dark Blues, Louisville Grays, Philadelphia Athletics, Brooklyn Mutuals (also called the New York Mutuals) & St. Louis Browns (also called the St. Louis Brown Stockings). There were 70 games for the season starting April 22nd and ending Oct. 21st.
For more information about this first year of professional baseball check out The Baseball Almanac
Saturday, December 3, 2016
Broom Factories & Broom Makers
Brooms have been around for eons, the question I've been trying to answer is when did the first broom factories start in America.
In 1841 in Sussex I find the listing of 65 broom-makers
A list of immigration to Missouri in 1867 listed several boom-makers
I found a disabled soldiers Broom-factory in 1875
1881 I found an expense report that line item a broom factory in a Missouri Penitentiary in 1880
And I found a grocery store owner in 1888 took payment of a broom making machine in exchange for food, then proceeded to have a very successful broom factory in the late 19th century into the 20th century. In fact, the business is still in operations today.
So, as of this moment, I do not know when the first broom factory developed in America. If you have a source with additional information, I'd love to hear it.
Below is a list of Broom & Brush Factory jobs, from the "Classified index of occupations by the United States," © 1921
Binder, broom or brush factory.
Borer, broom or brush factory.
Box maker, broom or brush factory.
Broom or brush maker, broom or brush
factory.
Broom or brush maker (not in factory).
Broom or brush maker (n. s.).
Buffer, broom or brush factory.
Buncher, broom or brush factory.
Comber, broom or brush factory.
Cutter, broom or brush factory.
Drawer, broom or brush factory.
In 1841 in Sussex I find the listing of 65 broom-makers
A list of immigration to Missouri in 1867 listed several boom-makers
I found a disabled soldiers Broom-factory in 1875
1881 I found an expense report that line item a broom factory in a Missouri Penitentiary in 1880
And I found a grocery store owner in 1888 took payment of a broom making machine in exchange for food, then proceeded to have a very successful broom factory in the late 19th century into the 20th century. In fact, the business is still in operations today.
So, as of this moment, I do not know when the first broom factory developed in America. If you have a source with additional information, I'd love to hear it.
Below is a list of Broom & Brush Factory jobs, from the "Classified index of occupations by the United States," © 1921
Binder, broom or brush factory.
Borer, broom or brush factory.
Box maker, broom or brush factory.
Broom or brush maker, broom or brush
factory.
Broom or brush maker (not in factory).
Broom or brush maker (n. s.).
Buffer, broom or brush factory.
Buncher, broom or brush factory.
Comber, broom or brush factory.
Cutter, broom or brush factory.
Drawer, broom or brush factory.
Tuesday, November 29, 2016
19th Century Photography
Wikipedia has a great overview of the history of the camera. There are a few dates that should be noted for those of us who write historical fiction.
In 1839 the first commercially produced camera, a Daguerreotype Giroux was sold.
1840 an American Chamfered daguerreian was made
Daguerrotypes are shown at the Great Exhibit in London in 1851 by 1853 New York Daily Tribune estimates that in the US 3 million daguerrotypes are being produced yearly.
The first studio that took portrait shots opened in 1853 in Paris.
In 1854 a boom of portrait studios worldwide over the next decade.
1859 a panoramic camera was invented.
1861-1865 Civil War is photographed by Mathew Brady and staff creating 7000 negatives.
Color Photography is introduced to the world in 1868
Eastman sets up Dry Plate Company in 1880
In 1887 a detective camera was patented by Eastman.
1888 First Kodak camera containing 20 foot roll of paper.
1889 first Kodak camera containing film
1900 Brownie camera introduced.
And behind every camera there is a photographer. I stumbled on this page and thought it might be helpful as well. It is a list of 19th century photographers, along with the dates they were in operation and where. Wikipedia has a great overview of the history of the camera. There are a few dates that should be noted for those of us who write historical fiction.
In 1839 the first commercially produced camera, a Daguerreotype Giroux was sold.
1840 an American Chamfered daguerreian was made
Daguerrotypes are shown at the Great Exhibit in London in 1851 by 1853 New York Daily Tribune estimates that in the US 3 million daguerrotypes are being produced yearly.
The first studio that took portrait shots opened in 1853 in Paris.
In 1854 a boom of portrait studios worldwide over the next decade.
1859 a panoramic camera was invented.
1861-1865 Civil War is photographed by Mathew Brady and staff creating 7000 negatives.
Color Photography is introduced to the world in 1868
Eastman sets up Dry Plate Company in 1880
In 1887 a detective camera was patented by Eastman.
1888 First Kodak camera containing 20 foot roll of paper.
1889 first Kodak camera containing film
1900 Brownie camera introduced.
And behind every camera there is a photographer. I stumbled on this page and thought it might be helpful as well. It is a list of 19th century photographers, along with the dates they were in operation and where.
In 1839 the first commercially produced camera, a Daguerreotype Giroux was sold.
1840 an American Chamfered daguerreian was made
Daguerrotypes are shown at the Great Exhibit in London in 1851 by 1853 New York Daily Tribune estimates that in the US 3 million daguerrotypes are being produced yearly.
The first studio that took portrait shots opened in 1853 in Paris.
In 1854 a boom of portrait studios worldwide over the next decade.
1859 a panoramic camera was invented.
1861-1865 Civil War is photographed by Mathew Brady and staff creating 7000 negatives.
Color Photography is introduced to the world in 1868
Eastman sets up Dry Plate Company in 1880
In 1887 a detective camera was patented by Eastman.
1888 First Kodak camera containing 20 foot roll of paper.
1889 first Kodak camera containing film
1900 Brownie camera introduced.
And behind every camera there is a photographer. I stumbled on this page and thought it might be helpful as well. It is a list of 19th century photographers, along with the dates they were in operation and where. Wikipedia has a great overview of the history of the camera. There are a few dates that should be noted for those of us who write historical fiction.
In 1839 the first commercially produced camera, a Daguerreotype Giroux was sold.
1840 an American Chamfered daguerreian was made
Daguerrotypes are shown at the Great Exhibit in London in 1851 by 1853 New York Daily Tribune estimates that in the US 3 million daguerrotypes are being produced yearly.
The first studio that took portrait shots opened in 1853 in Paris.
In 1854 a boom of portrait studios worldwide over the next decade.
1859 a panoramic camera was invented.
1861-1865 Civil War is photographed by Mathew Brady and staff creating 7000 negatives.
Color Photography is introduced to the world in 1868
Eastman sets up Dry Plate Company in 1880
In 1887 a detective camera was patented by Eastman.
1888 First Kodak camera containing 20 foot roll of paper.
1889 first Kodak camera containing film
1900 Brownie camera introduced.
And behind every camera there is a photographer. I stumbled on this page and thought it might be helpful as well. It is a list of 19th century photographers, along with the dates they were in operation and where.
Thursday, November 24, 2016
Thanksgiving Poems
Below is a poem that was published in 1880 in the Victorian Review, Vol. 3 pg 518. It was written by William Allen. I wasn't able to find anything about William Allen apart from this poem.
A THANKSGIVING.
I Thank Thee, Lord, because Thou dost ordain
Strength out of weakness, blessing out of pain;
For all of light through darkness brought to birth,
I thank Thee, O Thou Lord of Heaven and earth.
But, chief of all Thy gifts sent from above,
I thank Thee for the sovereign grace of love-
Choicest of all the boons to mortals known,
A ray of glory from the eternal throne.
See where this feeble sufferer lies ! a prey
To long-drawn pains that waste his life away;
While o'er his couch his faithful partner hangs,
And in her own fond bosom feels his pangs.
And once again her anxious watch behold,
Beside the one pet darling of the fold,
As forced, with breaking heart and streaming eye,
To own the hateful truth—" my child must die."
And is there nothing here but grief and gloom—
The grim attendants of the unlovely tonibl
Far be the thought! Here flowers of Eden blow,
Luxuriant in the midst of human woe.
Here the fair flower of love its fragrance yields,
To earth transplanted from the heavenly fields,—
So fair as almost with a grace to wreathe
The frightful features of the monster death.
'Tis love that bids the unwearying vigil keep,
And gives to tireless toil the hours of sleep;
Of wifely care, maternal watch and ward,
The keen inspirer and the sole reward.
Love lights the eyes (to love responsive given)
Of the child-angel on the verge of heaven;
And love unspeakable the husband shares
With her whose tender kindness soothes his cares.
Then, blest be God! who good from evil brings,
And round the ghastly grave a radiance flings,
Gilding with love a lot else all forlorn,
The grievous lot of those o'er death who mourn.
Dear Son of God! Dear love of God ! we pray
Take from our hearts all lovelessness away,
So shall Thy Spirit through our actions shine,
And make the meanest toil of life divine.
Wm. Allen.
A THANKSGIVING.
I Thank Thee, Lord, because Thou dost ordain
Strength out of weakness, blessing out of pain;
For all of light through darkness brought to birth,
I thank Thee, O Thou Lord of Heaven and earth.
But, chief of all Thy gifts sent from above,
I thank Thee for the sovereign grace of love-
Choicest of all the boons to mortals known,
A ray of glory from the eternal throne.
See where this feeble sufferer lies ! a prey
To long-drawn pains that waste his life away;
While o'er his couch his faithful partner hangs,
And in her own fond bosom feels his pangs.
And once again her anxious watch behold,
Beside the one pet darling of the fold,
As forced, with breaking heart and streaming eye,
To own the hateful truth—" my child must die."
And is there nothing here but grief and gloom—
The grim attendants of the unlovely tonibl
Far be the thought! Here flowers of Eden blow,
Luxuriant in the midst of human woe.
Here the fair flower of love its fragrance yields,
To earth transplanted from the heavenly fields,—
So fair as almost with a grace to wreathe
The frightful features of the monster death.
'Tis love that bids the unwearying vigil keep,
And gives to tireless toil the hours of sleep;
Of wifely care, maternal watch and ward,
The keen inspirer and the sole reward.
Love lights the eyes (to love responsive given)
Of the child-angel on the verge of heaven;
And love unspeakable the husband shares
With her whose tender kindness soothes his cares.
Then, blest be God! who good from evil brings,
And round the ghastly grave a radiance flings,
Gilding with love a lot else all forlorn,
The grievous lot of those o'er death who mourn.
Dear Son of God! Dear love of God ! we pray
Take from our hearts all lovelessness away,
So shall Thy Spirit through our actions shine,
And make the meanest toil of life divine.
Wm. Allen.
Monday, November 21, 2016
Walking Machine
Baron von Drais invented a walking machine in 1817 to help him get around the garden faster. The device was two in-line wheels of equal size, a steerable front wheel, both wheels were mounted to a frame which you straddled. This device was the beginning of what we now call a Bicycle.
Eventually this Walking machine became known as the Draisienne or hobby horse.
The fad faded in popularity. The Walking Machine was quite heavy and the frame made out of wood.
The next 2 wheeled riding machine was introduced in 1865 and had pedals attached to the front wheel. It was called the Velocipede or Boneshaker.
The high wheel Bicycle we most often think of with regard to the history of the bicycle was introduced in 1870. These bicycles were expansive but enjoyed by young men of means. They cost an average of six month's pay. They were a bit dangerous because they had a tendency to flip the rider over if the bike hit a rock in the road.
By the 1880's the High Wheeled Bicycle was invented. It was a tricycle giving more stability and the rider sat between the two rear wheels. These were more affordable and doctors and clergy would often used them. This invention also brought into use, rack and pinion steering, the differential and band brakes, all of which were used when the automobile was invented.
Eventually this Walking machine became known as the Draisienne or hobby horse.
The fad faded in popularity. The Walking Machine was quite heavy and the frame made out of wood.
The next 2 wheeled riding machine was introduced in 1865 and had pedals attached to the front wheel. It was called the Velocipede or Boneshaker.
The high wheel Bicycle we most often think of with regard to the history of the bicycle was introduced in 1870. These bicycles were expansive but enjoyed by young men of means. They cost an average of six month's pay. They were a bit dangerous because they had a tendency to flip the rider over if the bike hit a rock in the road.
By the 1880's the High Wheeled Bicycle was invented. It was a tricycle giving more stability and the rider sat between the two rear wheels. These were more affordable and doctors and clergy would often used them. This invention also brought into use, rack and pinion steering, the differential and band brakes, all of which were used when the automobile was invented.
Monday, October 31, 2016
Fish Chowder
This recipe comes from The Appledore Cook Book ©1880 This is the second edition.
THE APPLEDORE COOK BOOK,
FISH.
Chowder.
Take either a cod or haddock ; skin it, loosen the skin about the head, and draw it down towards the tail, when it will peel off easily. Then run your knife down the back close to the bone, which you take out. Cut your fish in small pieces, and wash in cold water. Put the head on to boil in about two quarts of water, and boil twenty minutes. For a fish weighing six pounds, pare and slice thin five good sized potatoes, and one onion. Place a layer of potatoes and onion in the pot, then a layer of fish, dredge in a little salt, pepper, and flour. Keep puting in alternate layers of potatoes and fish until all is used. Use about one tablespoonful of salt, one teaspoonful of pepper, one teacup of flour, in all.
Have ready half a pound of salt pork fried brown. Pour this over the mixture ; add about two quarts of cold water, then strain on the water in which the head h:^1 been boiled If this is not water enough to cover, add more cold. Cover tight, and boil gently thirty minutes. If not seasoned enough, add what you please. When it has boiled twenty minutes, put in six crackers which have been soaked three minutes in cold water. If you wish to add milk and butter, you can do Bo about five minutes before taking it up; but for my taste, it is much nicer and more natural without either.
Fish Chowder. Mrs. T. Leigliton.
Four pounds of fish, half cod and half haddock, if you can get the two kinds, two onions, six potatoes, eight white browns, one quarter of a pound of salt pork, salt, pepper. Prepare the chowder as directed in the preceding rule ; split the crackers and lay on the top, pour over the whole hot water enough to cover, and boil fifteen minutes ; then wet two tablespoonfuls of flour with one-third of a cup of cream. Stir this into the boiling chowder, let it boil up once, and serve. When you cannot get the white browns, pilot bread will answer. When a very strong flavor of onion is desired, use four onions.
THE APPLEDORE COOK BOOK,
FISH.
Chowder.
Take either a cod or haddock ; skin it, loosen the skin about the head, and draw it down towards the tail, when it will peel off easily. Then run your knife down the back close to the bone, which you take out. Cut your fish in small pieces, and wash in cold water. Put the head on to boil in about two quarts of water, and boil twenty minutes. For a fish weighing six pounds, pare and slice thin five good sized potatoes, and one onion. Place a layer of potatoes and onion in the pot, then a layer of fish, dredge in a little salt, pepper, and flour. Keep puting in alternate layers of potatoes and fish until all is used. Use about one tablespoonful of salt, one teaspoonful of pepper, one teacup of flour, in all.
Have ready half a pound of salt pork fried brown. Pour this over the mixture ; add about two quarts of cold water, then strain on the water in which the head h:^1 been boiled If this is not water enough to cover, add more cold. Cover tight, and boil gently thirty minutes. If not seasoned enough, add what you please. When it has boiled twenty minutes, put in six crackers which have been soaked three minutes in cold water. If you wish to add milk and butter, you can do Bo about five minutes before taking it up; but for my taste, it is much nicer and more natural without either.
Fish Chowder. Mrs. T. Leigliton.
Four pounds of fish, half cod and half haddock, if you can get the two kinds, two onions, six potatoes, eight white browns, one quarter of a pound of salt pork, salt, pepper. Prepare the chowder as directed in the preceding rule ; split the crackers and lay on the top, pour over the whole hot water enough to cover, and boil fifteen minutes ; then wet two tablespoonfuls of flour with one-third of a cup of cream. Stir this into the boiling chowder, let it boil up once, and serve. When you cannot get the white browns, pilot bread will answer. When a very strong flavor of onion is desired, use four onions.
Friday, October 21, 2016
Facts from 1880 Census
Taken from Houghtaling's Handbook of Useful Knowledge ©1887
Facts from the Census of 1880
Number of families in the United States . . . . . 9,945,916
Number of dwellings in the United States . . . . 8,955,842
Number of persons to a square mile . . . . . . . . . . . 17.29
Number of families to a square mile . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.43
Number of dwellings in a square mile . . . . . . . . . . .3.02
Number of of acres to a family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186.62
Number of persons to a dwelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.60
Number of persons to a family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.04
Facts from the Census of 1880
Number of families in the United States . . . . . 9,945,916
Number of dwellings in the United States . . . . 8,955,842
Number of persons to a square mile . . . . . . . . . . . 17.29
Number of families to a square mile . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.43
Number of dwellings in a square mile . . . . . . . . . . .3.02
Number of of acres to a family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186.62
Number of persons to a dwelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.60
Number of persons to a family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.04
Wednesday, October 19, 2016
Temperance Movement Part 4
As with any movement that becomes political unfortunately there comes corruption. Another interesting aspect of the Temperance Movement was an event called The Whiskey Ring. This ring basically was involved with fraud and over taxes alcohol for the purpose of lining their own pockets. In John McDonald's book Secrets of the great whiskey ring ©1880 you can read another part of this movement.
Below is a copy of the Preface
Nearly five years have elapsed since my conviction as a member of the Great Whiskey Ring of 1875, or, more properly, of the Ring the exposure of which occurred during that year. Five years is but a short while to those whose current of life flows with the melody of prosperity and contentment, but to him whose memory is seared by the basest ingratitude man ever showed to man ; whose sacrifices for those in power above him have ruined a life, in the debris of which his eyes, can never unbend their fixed gaze at his own bitter humility, it is ages.
In this introduction to my thorough exposure of the whiskey frauds culminating in 1875, it is my desire to qualify a most unenviable position ; one which I have no disposition to shrink from, however false appearing those sleuth hounds, fresh from a gluttonous feast of public blood ; those abusers of trust who cry "thief" loudest in order to deflect the gaze of justice from their own villanies, seek to make it. I do not approach the bar of public opinion at this day, laying bare the hideous deformities of recreant high-place officials, for the purpose of vindicating myself. Far from it. Denying nor affirming nothing as to my own guilt, the law has spent its force upon me ; I have paid the penalty, and further claims against me no man has ; I am, therefore, entitled to a considerate hearing in what I have to say.
Thoroughly appreciating how prone the public will be to throw discredit upon my statements, I have determined t» omit much that is unsupported by written or other corroborative evidence, and confine myself to charges which I can prove by overwhelming testimony. Every step, therefore, is cautiously made, and if there is a singe libel contained in this book I am amenable to the law, the burden of which few men have felt more heavily. Each declaration is made as if I were iinder oath, and in order that the true story shall appear unabridged I have dealt liberally only with the facts in which I have been as equally unsparing of myself as of all others implicated with me.
During the rigid investigation of the U. S. Grand Jury, when nearly every man in the nation believed that many of the highest officials in Washington were beneficiaries of the whiskey fund, I was asked a thousand times to disclose the secrets I was believed to possess. Indeed, I was promised immunity from punishment if I would become an informer; but those secrets were not revealed, for reasons easily understood : I was an appointee of President Grant, and as his friend and the recipient of his favors, certain obligations were created which I was not forgetful to regard. Gen. Babcock was the President's private secretary, and there will be few to contradict me when I say that he was, in a great measure, the President's chief adviser, especially in cases were his private matters were concerned. I regarded Babcock's instructions as those emanating from the highest authority, and however my obedience to their orders may be considered, thev were the excuse for my actions. Having become identified with the purposes of my superiors, sharing their benefits and entrusted with their confidence, when disclosures were made and the hour of sacrifice was at hand, I could not assume the character of a base ingrate to escape a punishment which, missing me, would involve the entire nation in the deepest disgrace. If I were convicted I knew that the tenure of my punishment would be limited to the disposition of him in whose hands the pardoning power was vested ; having received his promise of an immediate pardon I put on the sackcloth of disgrace and, .from the high position I had so many years maintained, I descended to the most humiliating, stigmatical depths—a felon's cell. For seventeen months I -wore the garb of infamy, that leprous, foul, polluted character which gnaws at sensitive nature "like a worm in the bud." I not only suffered this restraint of liberty with its unending night-mare of moral death, but lived on to see the honest accumulations of many years of patient labor wasted because I could not protect it, and from an ample fortune upon my entrance into political life I was reduced to penury when released. Those in power forgot me and their promises ; they feared to issue me an immediate pardon because of the pressure of public opinion, which might become intensified against them at suoh a bold interference to defeat the sentence of the court, and I was therefore permitted to languish until my forbearance would endure no more ; then I demanded my pardon, under threats of exposure if it were not immediately granted, and I was released at once.
To those who will cavil at my course, the question will be suggested, " Why are these disclosures made now, when the time for their effective use, in the courts, has passed:" Grant's re-nomination would have afforded a more plausible pretext for the publication of these disclosures—viewed from a strictly partisan standpoint, and unfortunately a great many persons can discover no merit in anything which may be devoid of political complexion. The purpose of this publication now has a broader base to rest upon than mere personal vindictiveness or political influence. It is to expose the villainies of an administration the very mention of which should excite a righteous indignation and befoul the atmosphere; but though the crimes of Marius, who sold offices in the public places of Rome, were as virtues, compared with many of the corrupt acts of Grant's administration, yet there is a very large percentage of American citizens whose eyes cannot penetrate beyond the military glory with which Grant is clothed; who parade his statesmanship and would reward his crimes with an honor no other American ever held or sought. It is with an earnest and will considered belief that Gen. Grant will be a, disturbing factor in the politics and purity of the nation solong as his infamies remain hidden, which furnishes one of tha reasons for this exposure, and with . this contribution to the literature of uncovered venality goes forth the hope that tha supporters of the Grant administration will find the proofs herein which will cause the blush of shame to mantle their cheeks for having lent their aid to perpetuate infamies of such magnitude as were constantly developing while Gen. Grant was our Chief Magistrate, who, as will be conclusively shown, was an active participant in the frauds laid bare in this work.
I have included the venal acts of Gen. James A. Garfield, because of his position now as candidate for the Presidency, and to forwarn the nation against abuses in office which he will certainly inaugurate if elected.
I have no affiliation with the Democratic party further than my desire to see the return of honest principles, and above all, " honest acts," which will reclaim the nation from the disgrace visited upon it by corrupt officials, among which class the public will include.
John Mcdonald,
Formerly Supervisor of Internal Revenue /or the district embracing Missouri, Arkansas* Texas, Kansas, Indian Territory and New Mexico
Below is a copy of the Preface
Nearly five years have elapsed since my conviction as a member of the Great Whiskey Ring of 1875, or, more properly, of the Ring the exposure of which occurred during that year. Five years is but a short while to those whose current of life flows with the melody of prosperity and contentment, but to him whose memory is seared by the basest ingratitude man ever showed to man ; whose sacrifices for those in power above him have ruined a life, in the debris of which his eyes, can never unbend their fixed gaze at his own bitter humility, it is ages.
In this introduction to my thorough exposure of the whiskey frauds culminating in 1875, it is my desire to qualify a most unenviable position ; one which I have no disposition to shrink from, however false appearing those sleuth hounds, fresh from a gluttonous feast of public blood ; those abusers of trust who cry "thief" loudest in order to deflect the gaze of justice from their own villanies, seek to make it. I do not approach the bar of public opinion at this day, laying bare the hideous deformities of recreant high-place officials, for the purpose of vindicating myself. Far from it. Denying nor affirming nothing as to my own guilt, the law has spent its force upon me ; I have paid the penalty, and further claims against me no man has ; I am, therefore, entitled to a considerate hearing in what I have to say.
Thoroughly appreciating how prone the public will be to throw discredit upon my statements, I have determined t» omit much that is unsupported by written or other corroborative evidence, and confine myself to charges which I can prove by overwhelming testimony. Every step, therefore, is cautiously made, and if there is a singe libel contained in this book I am amenable to the law, the burden of which few men have felt more heavily. Each declaration is made as if I were iinder oath, and in order that the true story shall appear unabridged I have dealt liberally only with the facts in which I have been as equally unsparing of myself as of all others implicated with me.
During the rigid investigation of the U. S. Grand Jury, when nearly every man in the nation believed that many of the highest officials in Washington were beneficiaries of the whiskey fund, I was asked a thousand times to disclose the secrets I was believed to possess. Indeed, I was promised immunity from punishment if I would become an informer; but those secrets were not revealed, for reasons easily understood : I was an appointee of President Grant, and as his friend and the recipient of his favors, certain obligations were created which I was not forgetful to regard. Gen. Babcock was the President's private secretary, and there will be few to contradict me when I say that he was, in a great measure, the President's chief adviser, especially in cases were his private matters were concerned. I regarded Babcock's instructions as those emanating from the highest authority, and however my obedience to their orders may be considered, thev were the excuse for my actions. Having become identified with the purposes of my superiors, sharing their benefits and entrusted with their confidence, when disclosures were made and the hour of sacrifice was at hand, I could not assume the character of a base ingrate to escape a punishment which, missing me, would involve the entire nation in the deepest disgrace. If I were convicted I knew that the tenure of my punishment would be limited to the disposition of him in whose hands the pardoning power was vested ; having received his promise of an immediate pardon I put on the sackcloth of disgrace and, .from the high position I had so many years maintained, I descended to the most humiliating, stigmatical depths—a felon's cell. For seventeen months I -wore the garb of infamy, that leprous, foul, polluted character which gnaws at sensitive nature "like a worm in the bud." I not only suffered this restraint of liberty with its unending night-mare of moral death, but lived on to see the honest accumulations of many years of patient labor wasted because I could not protect it, and from an ample fortune upon my entrance into political life I was reduced to penury when released. Those in power forgot me and their promises ; they feared to issue me an immediate pardon because of the pressure of public opinion, which might become intensified against them at suoh a bold interference to defeat the sentence of the court, and I was therefore permitted to languish until my forbearance would endure no more ; then I demanded my pardon, under threats of exposure if it were not immediately granted, and I was released at once.
To those who will cavil at my course, the question will be suggested, " Why are these disclosures made now, when the time for their effective use, in the courts, has passed:" Grant's re-nomination would have afforded a more plausible pretext for the publication of these disclosures—viewed from a strictly partisan standpoint, and unfortunately a great many persons can discover no merit in anything which may be devoid of political complexion. The purpose of this publication now has a broader base to rest upon than mere personal vindictiveness or political influence. It is to expose the villainies of an administration the very mention of which should excite a righteous indignation and befoul the atmosphere; but though the crimes of Marius, who sold offices in the public places of Rome, were as virtues, compared with many of the corrupt acts of Grant's administration, yet there is a very large percentage of American citizens whose eyes cannot penetrate beyond the military glory with which Grant is clothed; who parade his statesmanship and would reward his crimes with an honor no other American ever held or sought. It is with an earnest and will considered belief that Gen. Grant will be a, disturbing factor in the politics and purity of the nation solong as his infamies remain hidden, which furnishes one of tha reasons for this exposure, and with . this contribution to the literature of uncovered venality goes forth the hope that tha supporters of the Grant administration will find the proofs herein which will cause the blush of shame to mantle their cheeks for having lent their aid to perpetuate infamies of such magnitude as were constantly developing while Gen. Grant was our Chief Magistrate, who, as will be conclusively shown, was an active participant in the frauds laid bare in this work.
I have included the venal acts of Gen. James A. Garfield, because of his position now as candidate for the Presidency, and to forwarn the nation against abuses in office which he will certainly inaugurate if elected.
I have no affiliation with the Democratic party further than my desire to see the return of honest principles, and above all, " honest acts," which will reclaim the nation from the disgrace visited upon it by corrupt officials, among which class the public will include.
John Mcdonald,
Formerly Supervisor of Internal Revenue /or the district embracing Missouri, Arkansas* Texas, Kansas, Indian Territory and New Mexico
Wednesday, October 5, 2016
Ice Box Refrigeration
Below are some interesting facts regarding refrigeration using an icebox. Often times today we think of those in the 19th century of not having refrigeration. And in terms of what we have today, that's somewhat true. However, below I've listed a few facts to help us rethink what our ancestors might have been using in the 19th century.
A lawsuit: Alaska Refrigerator Co. v. Wisconsin Refrigerator Co. et al. (Circuit Court, AT. D. Illinois. July 13,1891.)
Dealt with a patent violation: Here's the facts. The original patent No. 8,463, reissued October 22, 1878 and originally issued July 24th, 1877.
In another lawsuit it states "The original letters patent were granted to Azel S. Lyman, as inventor, Mar. 25, 1856 and were extended for seven years from Mar. 25, 1879 and were reissued to Lyman, Dec. 26, 1871 ...
This notes that the ice box was patented as early as 1856.
According to Ellen Plante in her book "The American Kitchen." She states that iceboxes were available in 1860 but not widely used until 1880.
In 1864 we have reference to the Refrigerator (icebox) in "The American Home cook Book: with several hundred excellent recipes by American Lady ©1864.
A lawsuit: Alaska Refrigerator Co. v. Wisconsin Refrigerator Co. et al. (Circuit Court, AT. D. Illinois. July 13,1891.)
Dealt with a patent violation: Here's the facts. The original patent No. 8,463, reissued October 22, 1878 and originally issued July 24th, 1877.
In another lawsuit it states "The original letters patent were granted to Azel S. Lyman, as inventor, Mar. 25, 1856 and were extended for seven years from Mar. 25, 1879 and were reissued to Lyman, Dec. 26, 1871 ...
This notes that the ice box was patented as early as 1856.
According to Ellen Plante in her book "The American Kitchen." She states that iceboxes were available in 1860 but not widely used until 1880.
In 1864 we have reference to the Refrigerator (icebox) in "The American Home cook Book: with several hundred excellent recipes by American Lady ©1864.
Thanksgiving Cranberries Part 1
How does this relate to the 19th century? Note that it is a native fruit of North America. Also, note where the cranberry is grown. In my opinion it makes for a unique setting and occupation. Also there is a paragraph below that relates to the growth of this industry in the 19th century. But the primary reason for including this excerpt about the cranberry for Thanksgiving is because it was a part of the early Thanksgiving celebrations in Plymouth, MA.
Here is an excerpt from: From the Cyclopedia Of American Horticulture ©1906
CRANBERRY. A name applied to trailing species of the genus Vaccinium (JSricAcece). Of the true Cranberries there are two species in North America,—the small ( Vaccinium Oxycoccus), and the large ( V. macrocarpon). These are native to swamps, where they trail their slender stems and little oval evergreen leaves over the sphagnum and boggy turf. The red, firm berries ripen late in fall, and often persist on the vines until spring, when well protected with snow. Each berry is borne on a slender pedicel; and the curve of this pedicel in the European species is said to have suggested the name Craneberry, which is now shortened to Cranberry. See Vaccinium.
The large Cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon, is now cultivated on hundreds of acres in the United States; and this Cranberry culture is one of the most special and interesting of all pomological pursuits. This Cranberry grows only in North America; and North America is the only country which has a domestic or cultivated Cranberry. Because Cranberry-growing is such an unusual type of horticulture, it is thought advisable to devote considerable space to it in this Cyclopedia.
Cranberries may be grown on land both low and high; but it is the general experience that low, boggy lands are the only ones which give permanently good results. In the winter, the natural Cranberry bogs are usually flooded, and in summer they are free of standing water. The flowers are often caught by the late frosts of spring, and the fruit may be injured by the early frosts of fall. Bogs are often ruined by fire in times of drought. Insects and fungi often play havoc with the crop.
The ideal bog for Cranberry culture is the one in which the natural environments of the plant are most nearly imitated, and in which the grower can have the greatest control over the difficulties mentioned above. It should have the following qualifications : (1) Capability of being drained of all surface water, so that frea water does not stand higher than one foot below the surface in the growing season. (2) Soil which retains moisture through the summer, for Cranberries suffer greatly in drought. (3) Sufficient water supply to enable it to be flooded. (4) A fairly level or even surface, so that the flooding will be of approximately uniform depth over the entire area. (5) Not over-liable to frosts. Bogs which contain moss or sphagnum and which have a peaty or mucky soil are usually chosen. If heath-like shrubs grow naturally in the bog, the indications are all the better. The presence of the Cassandra or Leatherleaf is regarded as a good augury. Black ash, red maple, swamp huckleberry, and white cedar swamps are often very satisfactory. Old mill-ponds often give good results.
Before the Cranberries are planted, the bog must be cleaned of trees, bushes, moss and roots. This may be done by "turfing," which is the digging out of the flood in spring or fall, to kill insects or to protect from frosts. The objects of flooding are as follows: (1) to protect the plants from heaving in winter ; (2) to avoid late spring and early fall frosts ; (3) to drown insects; (4) to protect from drought; (5) to guard against Hre. Unless serious contingencies arise, the bog is flooded only in winter. A flooded bog looks like a lake (Fig. 568). Good results are obtained now and then in "dry"or upland bogs, which cannot be flooded; but such bogs or meadows rarely give uniform results, and they are less advised than formerly.
There are three centers of Cranberry growing in North America,— Cape Cod peninsula, New Jersey, Wisconsin. Each has methods peculiar to itself. It was in the Cape Cod region that Cranberry culture began. The first attempts were made early in this century. William Kenrick, writing in 1832 in this "Orchardist," says that "Capt. Henry Hall, of Barnstable, has cultivated the Cranberry twenty years;" "Mr. P. A. Hayden, of Lincoln, Mass., is stated to have gathered from his farm in 1830, 400 bushels of Cranberries, which brought him in Boston market $600." In the second and subsequent editions, Kenricks makes the figure $400. It is not said whether Mr. Hayden's berries were wild or cultivated. At the present day, with all the increase in production, swamp growth, or by "drowning," which is deeply flooding the place for a year. The method of preparing the surface for receiving the plants varies in different regions. Open ditches are run through the place in sufficient number to carry off the surface water. They are usually made 2 to 4 feet deep. If some water stands in them during the summer, better results are expected. These ditches usually feed into one main or central ditch; and this main ditch is preferably the one which, when dammed at its lower end, floods the bog by backing up the water. Growers prefer, if possible, to divert a living brook through the bog, or to straighten and deepen one which may exist there ; but in the absence of a brook, a reservoir may be constructed above the bog. Sufficient water supply should be had to cover the entire area from December until April or early May, to a depth of at least one foot. The lower places will have a deeper covering, but 4 or 5 feet in places usually does no harm in the winter. It 569. Cranberry hand-picker, also may be necessary to prices are higher than those received by Mr. Hayden.
In the third (1841) and subsequent editions, it is said that "an acre of Cranberries in full bearing will produce over 200 bushels ; and the fruit generally sells, in the markets of Boston, for $1.50 per bushel, and much higher than in former years." It was as late as 1850, however, that Cranberry culture gained much prominence. It was in 1856 that the first treatise appeared : B. Eastwood's "Complete Manual for the Cultivation of the Cranberry." About 1845, Cranberry culture began to establish itself in New Jersey.
In the Cape Cod region, the bogs are "turfed." The surface covering is cut into small squares and hauled off. The object is to obtain a uniform surface in order that all plants may have equal opportunity. The bog is then "sanded." Rather coarse, clean sand is spread over the entire area to the depth of about 4 inches. In this covering, the vines are planted. The sand keeps down weeds and thereby lessens subsequent labor; it affords a moisture-holding mulch for the muck; it renders the plantation easier to be worked in wet weather, and it prevents the too vigorous growth of the vine. Every four of five years a fresh sanding, to the depth of an inch or less, is given. This keeps the vines short and close. Formerly, whole roots or " sods " of Cranberry were used for planting, but now cuttings are employed. These cuttings are 6- or 8-inch pieces of rigorous runners, with the leaves on. They are thrust obliquely through the sand, only an inch or two of the top remaining uncovered. They are set about 14 inches apart each way. In three or four years a full crop is obtained. The bogs are kept clean by means of hand weeding. At Cape Cod, it is estimated that the sum of $300 to $500 per acre is required to flt and plant a bog. A good yield from a bog in full bearing is 50 barrels to the acre ; but 200 barrels have been grown.
In New Jersey, the general tendency is to omit the sanding. The bogs are not cleared so carefully. The plants are often set directly in the earth bottom, after the heavy turf is removed. The bogs—or meadows, as they are usually called—are not kept so scrupulously clean. It is thought that a reasonable quantity of grass prevents scalding of the berries. If the vines become too by the form of the berry, —the bell-shaped (Pig. 570), the bugle-shaped (Pig. 571), and the cherry-shaped (Fig. 572). There are many named varieties in each of these classes, differing in size, color, firmness, keeping qualities, productiveness. These varieties have been selected from plants which have appeared naturally in the bogs. Some of them have been discovered in wild bogs. The demands of the market, as respects varieties, are constantly changing. In Massachusetts, the following varieties are now popular: Early Black, Howe, Matthews, McFarliu.
The Cranberry is now a staple article of food in North America. "Turkey and Cranberry sauce" may be said to be the national dish. The berries are used in great variety of dishes. An effort has been made to open an European market, and an agent was sent abroad in 1891 for that purpose by the American Cranberry Trade Company. The export trade has now assumed some importance, and is growing. The approximate Cranberry crops for a series of years are shown below, in bushels:
deep, they are mown or burned in order to secure a fresh growth from the roots.
The gathering of the crop is done preferably by hand-picking, particularly in plantations which" are well cared for. In some eases the berries are raked off with a steel garden rake, but many of them are lost and bruised, and the vines may be injured. It is said by some that the tearing out of the old and large vines in the raking tends to renew the plants, and this is undoubtedly true; but there are better ways of keeping the vines young and short, as by sanding or mowing. In the East, raking is now rarely employed, unless the crop is very poor or prices very low; or unless hard frost is expected, in which case the berries may be raked, the bog flooded, and the berries caught at the flume. Sometimes the bog is flooded when hard frost is threatened and the water is allowed to remain all winter, and the berries are harvested in the spring; but such early flooding may injure the vines. The price paid for the picking of Cranberries is usually about 40 to 50 cts. a bushel. Three to four bushels is considered to be an average day's picking. There are various devices to facilitate the picking. On Cape Cod a popular implement is the Lumber1: picker (Fig. 5C9). The machine is tjirust into the vines, and the operater closes the lid by bearing down with his thumb; drawing it backward pulls off the berries. Usually the pickers are"lined-off " (Fig.568) by cords stretched across the bog, thus limiting each one to a particular area, which he is required to pick clean. The berries are cleaned by running them through a separator, by passing them over a screen, by floating off the litter by dowsing them in water, and by other means. Dowsing usually reduces the market value. They are then marketed in barrels or crates.
Of varieties there are three general types, determined:
The Low-bush Cranberry, or Wolfberry (V. VitisIdaa), is much used in Nova Scotia and other parts, and is gathered and shipped in large quantities to Boston; but it is not cultivated. This berry is also common in Europe, where it is much prized. The quantities of this fruit imported into the U. S. from various sources is considerable. For example, between July 24 and Dec. 31, 1897, the following imports were received (as compiled by Rider):
The Cranberry is subject to the attacks of various insects, for most of which the best remedy is flooding, although the fruit-worm is probably best destroyed by spraying with arsenites. There are also fungous troubles. For information on all these difficulties, the bulletins of the New Jersey Experiment Station are the best literature.
The best literature on the Cranberry is comprised in the Proceedings of the American Cranberry Growers' Association, with headquarters at Trenton, N. J. This society holds an "annual meeting" in January, and an "annual convention" in August. Beginning with 1880, it has published regular reports of each of these gatherings. The standard books are White's "Cranberry Culture," largely from the New Jersey standpoint, and Webb's "Cape Cod Cranberries."
Notes By A Wisconsin Grower.— Cranberries are raised mainly in the states of Massachusetts, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Michigan and Minnesota. The eastern marshes are mostly "made," while in Wisconsin there are thousands of acres of natural marsh as yet entirely uncultivated, as well as much that is cultivated.
The natural soil for the Cranberry is peat. Sand is also good, but, when used alone, must have a new coat of it spread over the ground every few years, as it becomes exhausted and the vines become woody and cease to bear. The ideal soil seems to be a foundation of peat, with from 2 to 4 inches of sand spread over it. It is very desirable that the surface should be level, so that it can all be kept equally moist. The leveling is usually done by "scalping," i. e., taking off the sod and carrying it away. This also removes the moss and other foul vegetation, and gives the vines a chance to take full possession of the ground. If scalping is considered too expensive, the moss may be killed by flooding in winter and drawing the water off in spring ; but it takes two or three years for it to rot sun *, ittly to allow vines to do well. Plowing is sometimes resorted to where it can be done, or the sods turned upside down by some other means.
The best sites for Cranberry raising are those which afford a perfect water supply. There should be a reservoir of water on the upper side of the marsh (and if it is on the north or northwest so much the better, as it will then be more sure protection from frost), which can be emptied on to the marsh at short notice; and there must also be good drainage, to carry it away from the marsh quickly when desired. A level piece of marsh which has vines already growing on it looks very tempting to the uninitiated, but, if it has not a good water supply, it is better to leave it in the natural state and take the crops which grow in favorable seasons, than to spend money improving it.
A good sand marsh may be made near any stream in a sandy region by selecting a spot where water can be drawn from the stream, but there should also be a reservoir to hold water in, as that which comes directly from a running stream is sometimes too cold for Cranberries.
If dams are built from the sods thrown from the ditches, it is desirable, at least for the reservoir dam?, to cover them with sand. This should be put mostly on the top and upper side, and should slope from the top of the dam to the center of the ditch. This prevents muskrats from doing very much damage, and the dam is not so apt to be washed out by high water as when built in a perpendicular wall. The cheapest way to move sand to build dams or for spreading on the marsh is to haul it on sleighs in the winter. A platform is built on rockers, so that the load may be dumped at one side of the sleigh ; and two loads in a place on a good peat dam will make a heavy reservoir dam. The pit from which sand is taken should be well protected with snow or sawdust to prevent its freezing badly. One of the best ways of making waste-gates is to place three joists lengthwise of the dam a little below the bottom of the ditch, and a platform built upon them, and the whole settled down as firmly as possible; then the dam is built right onto the platform for 3 or 4 feet on each side, and then the sideboards put in place, and cleats nailed up and down into which to slip the sluice boards. It is a good plan to have an outside ditch, which will carry surplus water around the marsh instead of across it, in wet seasons.
Here is an excerpt from: From the Cyclopedia Of American Horticulture ©1906
CRANBERRY. A name applied to trailing species of the genus Vaccinium (JSricAcece). Of the true Cranberries there are two species in North America,—the small ( Vaccinium Oxycoccus), and the large ( V. macrocarpon). These are native to swamps, where they trail their slender stems and little oval evergreen leaves over the sphagnum and boggy turf. The red, firm berries ripen late in fall, and often persist on the vines until spring, when well protected with snow. Each berry is borne on a slender pedicel; and the curve of this pedicel in the European species is said to have suggested the name Craneberry, which is now shortened to Cranberry. See Vaccinium.
The large Cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon, is now cultivated on hundreds of acres in the United States; and this Cranberry culture is one of the most special and interesting of all pomological pursuits. This Cranberry grows only in North America; and North America is the only country which has a domestic or cultivated Cranberry. Because Cranberry-growing is such an unusual type of horticulture, it is thought advisable to devote considerable space to it in this Cyclopedia.
Cranberries may be grown on land both low and high; but it is the general experience that low, boggy lands are the only ones which give permanently good results. In the winter, the natural Cranberry bogs are usually flooded, and in summer they are free of standing water. The flowers are often caught by the late frosts of spring, and the fruit may be injured by the early frosts of fall. Bogs are often ruined by fire in times of drought. Insects and fungi often play havoc with the crop.
The ideal bog for Cranberry culture is the one in which the natural environments of the plant are most nearly imitated, and in which the grower can have the greatest control over the difficulties mentioned above. It should have the following qualifications : (1) Capability of being drained of all surface water, so that frea water does not stand higher than one foot below the surface in the growing season. (2) Soil which retains moisture through the summer, for Cranberries suffer greatly in drought. (3) Sufficient water supply to enable it to be flooded. (4) A fairly level or even surface, so that the flooding will be of approximately uniform depth over the entire area. (5) Not over-liable to frosts. Bogs which contain moss or sphagnum and which have a peaty or mucky soil are usually chosen. If heath-like shrubs grow naturally in the bog, the indications are all the better. The presence of the Cassandra or Leatherleaf is regarded as a good augury. Black ash, red maple, swamp huckleberry, and white cedar swamps are often very satisfactory. Old mill-ponds often give good results.
Before the Cranberries are planted, the bog must be cleaned of trees, bushes, moss and roots. This may be done by "turfing," which is the digging out of the flood in spring or fall, to kill insects or to protect from frosts. The objects of flooding are as follows: (1) to protect the plants from heaving in winter ; (2) to avoid late spring and early fall frosts ; (3) to drown insects; (4) to protect from drought; (5) to guard against Hre. Unless serious contingencies arise, the bog is flooded only in winter. A flooded bog looks like a lake (Fig. 568). Good results are obtained now and then in "dry"or upland bogs, which cannot be flooded; but such bogs or meadows rarely give uniform results, and they are less advised than formerly.
There are three centers of Cranberry growing in North America,— Cape Cod peninsula, New Jersey, Wisconsin. Each has methods peculiar to itself. It was in the Cape Cod region that Cranberry culture began. The first attempts were made early in this century. William Kenrick, writing in 1832 in this "Orchardist," says that "Capt. Henry Hall, of Barnstable, has cultivated the Cranberry twenty years;" "Mr. P. A. Hayden, of Lincoln, Mass., is stated to have gathered from his farm in 1830, 400 bushels of Cranberries, which brought him in Boston market $600." In the second and subsequent editions, Kenricks makes the figure $400. It is not said whether Mr. Hayden's berries were wild or cultivated. At the present day, with all the increase in production, swamp growth, or by "drowning," which is deeply flooding the place for a year. The method of preparing the surface for receiving the plants varies in different regions. Open ditches are run through the place in sufficient number to carry off the surface water. They are usually made 2 to 4 feet deep. If some water stands in them during the summer, better results are expected. These ditches usually feed into one main or central ditch; and this main ditch is preferably the one which, when dammed at its lower end, floods the bog by backing up the water. Growers prefer, if possible, to divert a living brook through the bog, or to straighten and deepen one which may exist there ; but in the absence of a brook, a reservoir may be constructed above the bog. Sufficient water supply should be had to cover the entire area from December until April or early May, to a depth of at least one foot. The lower places will have a deeper covering, but 4 or 5 feet in places usually does no harm in the winter. It 569. Cranberry hand-picker, also may be necessary to prices are higher than those received by Mr. Hayden.
In the third (1841) and subsequent editions, it is said that "an acre of Cranberries in full bearing will produce over 200 bushels ; and the fruit generally sells, in the markets of Boston, for $1.50 per bushel, and much higher than in former years." It was as late as 1850, however, that Cranberry culture gained much prominence. It was in 1856 that the first treatise appeared : B. Eastwood's "Complete Manual for the Cultivation of the Cranberry." About 1845, Cranberry culture began to establish itself in New Jersey.
In the Cape Cod region, the bogs are "turfed." The surface covering is cut into small squares and hauled off. The object is to obtain a uniform surface in order that all plants may have equal opportunity. The bog is then "sanded." Rather coarse, clean sand is spread over the entire area to the depth of about 4 inches. In this covering, the vines are planted. The sand keeps down weeds and thereby lessens subsequent labor; it affords a moisture-holding mulch for the muck; it renders the plantation easier to be worked in wet weather, and it prevents the too vigorous growth of the vine. Every four of five years a fresh sanding, to the depth of an inch or less, is given. This keeps the vines short and close. Formerly, whole roots or " sods " of Cranberry were used for planting, but now cuttings are employed. These cuttings are 6- or 8-inch pieces of rigorous runners, with the leaves on. They are thrust obliquely through the sand, only an inch or two of the top remaining uncovered. They are set about 14 inches apart each way. In three or four years a full crop is obtained. The bogs are kept clean by means of hand weeding. At Cape Cod, it is estimated that the sum of $300 to $500 per acre is required to flt and plant a bog. A good yield from a bog in full bearing is 50 barrels to the acre ; but 200 barrels have been grown.
In New Jersey, the general tendency is to omit the sanding. The bogs are not cleared so carefully. The plants are often set directly in the earth bottom, after the heavy turf is removed. The bogs—or meadows, as they are usually called—are not kept so scrupulously clean. It is thought that a reasonable quantity of grass prevents scalding of the berries. If the vines become too by the form of the berry, —the bell-shaped (Pig. 570), the bugle-shaped (Pig. 571), and the cherry-shaped (Fig. 572). There are many named varieties in each of these classes, differing in size, color, firmness, keeping qualities, productiveness. These varieties have been selected from plants which have appeared naturally in the bogs. Some of them have been discovered in wild bogs. The demands of the market, as respects varieties, are constantly changing. In Massachusetts, the following varieties are now popular: Early Black, Howe, Matthews, McFarliu.
The Cranberry is now a staple article of food in North America. "Turkey and Cranberry sauce" may be said to be the national dish. The berries are used in great variety of dishes. An effort has been made to open an European market, and an agent was sent abroad in 1891 for that purpose by the American Cranberry Trade Company. The export trade has now assumed some importance, and is growing. The approximate Cranberry crops for a series of years are shown below, in bushels:
deep, they are mown or burned in order to secure a fresh growth from the roots.
The gathering of the crop is done preferably by hand-picking, particularly in plantations which" are well cared for. In some eases the berries are raked off with a steel garden rake, but many of them are lost and bruised, and the vines may be injured. It is said by some that the tearing out of the old and large vines in the raking tends to renew the plants, and this is undoubtedly true; but there are better ways of keeping the vines young and short, as by sanding or mowing. In the East, raking is now rarely employed, unless the crop is very poor or prices very low; or unless hard frost is expected, in which case the berries may be raked, the bog flooded, and the berries caught at the flume. Sometimes the bog is flooded when hard frost is threatened and the water is allowed to remain all winter, and the berries are harvested in the spring; but such early flooding may injure the vines. The price paid for the picking of Cranberries is usually about 40 to 50 cts. a bushel. Three to four bushels is considered to be an average day's picking. There are various devices to facilitate the picking. On Cape Cod a popular implement is the Lumber1: picker (Fig. 5C9). The machine is tjirust into the vines, and the operater closes the lid by bearing down with his thumb; drawing it backward pulls off the berries. Usually the pickers are"lined-off " (Fig.568) by cords stretched across the bog, thus limiting each one to a particular area, which he is required to pick clean. The berries are cleaned by running them through a separator, by passing them over a screen, by floating off the litter by dowsing them in water, and by other means. Dowsing usually reduces the market value. They are then marketed in barrels or crates.
Of varieties there are three general types, determined:
The Low-bush Cranberry, or Wolfberry (V. VitisIdaa), is much used in Nova Scotia and other parts, and is gathered and shipped in large quantities to Boston; but it is not cultivated. This berry is also common in Europe, where it is much prized. The quantities of this fruit imported into the U. S. from various sources is considerable. For example, between July 24 and Dec. 31, 1897, the following imports were received (as compiled by Rider):
The Cranberry is subject to the attacks of various insects, for most of which the best remedy is flooding, although the fruit-worm is probably best destroyed by spraying with arsenites. There are also fungous troubles. For information on all these difficulties, the bulletins of the New Jersey Experiment Station are the best literature.
The best literature on the Cranberry is comprised in the Proceedings of the American Cranberry Growers' Association, with headquarters at Trenton, N. J. This society holds an "annual meeting" in January, and an "annual convention" in August. Beginning with 1880, it has published regular reports of each of these gatherings. The standard books are White's "Cranberry Culture," largely from the New Jersey standpoint, and Webb's "Cape Cod Cranberries."
Notes By A Wisconsin Grower.— Cranberries are raised mainly in the states of Massachusetts, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Michigan and Minnesota. The eastern marshes are mostly "made," while in Wisconsin there are thousands of acres of natural marsh as yet entirely uncultivated, as well as much that is cultivated.
The natural soil for the Cranberry is peat. Sand is also good, but, when used alone, must have a new coat of it spread over the ground every few years, as it becomes exhausted and the vines become woody and cease to bear. The ideal soil seems to be a foundation of peat, with from 2 to 4 inches of sand spread over it. It is very desirable that the surface should be level, so that it can all be kept equally moist. The leveling is usually done by "scalping," i. e., taking off the sod and carrying it away. This also removes the moss and other foul vegetation, and gives the vines a chance to take full possession of the ground. If scalping is considered too expensive, the moss may be killed by flooding in winter and drawing the water off in spring ; but it takes two or three years for it to rot sun *, ittly to allow vines to do well. Plowing is sometimes resorted to where it can be done, or the sods turned upside down by some other means.
The best sites for Cranberry raising are those which afford a perfect water supply. There should be a reservoir of water on the upper side of the marsh (and if it is on the north or northwest so much the better, as it will then be more sure protection from frost), which can be emptied on to the marsh at short notice; and there must also be good drainage, to carry it away from the marsh quickly when desired. A level piece of marsh which has vines already growing on it looks very tempting to the uninitiated, but, if it has not a good water supply, it is better to leave it in the natural state and take the crops which grow in favorable seasons, than to spend money improving it.
A good sand marsh may be made near any stream in a sandy region by selecting a spot where water can be drawn from the stream, but there should also be a reservoir to hold water in, as that which comes directly from a running stream is sometimes too cold for Cranberries.
If dams are built from the sods thrown from the ditches, it is desirable, at least for the reservoir dam?, to cover them with sand. This should be put mostly on the top and upper side, and should slope from the top of the dam to the center of the ditch. This prevents muskrats from doing very much damage, and the dam is not so apt to be washed out by high water as when built in a perpendicular wall. The cheapest way to move sand to build dams or for spreading on the marsh is to haul it on sleighs in the winter. A platform is built on rockers, so that the load may be dumped at one side of the sleigh ; and two loads in a place on a good peat dam will make a heavy reservoir dam. The pit from which sand is taken should be well protected with snow or sawdust to prevent its freezing badly. One of the best ways of making waste-gates is to place three joists lengthwise of the dam a little below the bottom of the ditch, and a platform built upon them, and the whole settled down as firmly as possible; then the dam is built right onto the platform for 3 or 4 feet on each side, and then the sideboards put in place, and cleats nailed up and down into which to slip the sluice boards. It is a good plan to have an outside ditch, which will carry surplus water around the marsh instead of across it, in wet seasons.
Saturday, October 1, 2016
Lithographs
Lithographs made it possible for Salesmen to sell their products. What is a lithograph, you ask, originally printers found that with a grease pencil or crayon the printer could mark the limestone. The process then continued with rolling the ink on the stone and pressing the paper to it for a print. What was particularly helpful for these printers is that the stone could be used over and over again making as many prints as the printer wanted. It didn't take long before the stones were exchanged for metal plates.
What did this mean for the 19th century? Many things. As previously mentioned yesterday salesmen had copies of their product to sell in picture form. Currier & Ives begin in 1835 as did many other printers. It opened yet another business for mankind, one that only a handful of people had been able to do before. It allowed artists to get their work out. Illustrators were used in newspapers and on and on it went.
As the century developed so did the techniques. At first the lithographs were black and white and the artist would paint the color to the prints. By the 1880's advertising had blossomed and so did the printing base, allowing color to be printed. There were a lot of changes in the printing industry during the 19th century, just as there has been a lot in our own century.
What this all means for us who write historical fiction, think creatively, look at all the occupations that come just from the invention of the lithograph. There is the printer, the business man who owns the printing business, the artists who painted in the black and white prints and the artist who prepared the printing plates for the prints.
What did this mean for the 19th century? Many things. As previously mentioned yesterday salesmen had copies of their product to sell in picture form. Currier & Ives begin in 1835 as did many other printers. It opened yet another business for mankind, one that only a handful of people had been able to do before. It allowed artists to get their work out. Illustrators were used in newspapers and on and on it went.
As the century developed so did the techniques. At first the lithographs were black and white and the artist would paint the color to the prints. By the 1880's advertising had blossomed and so did the printing base, allowing color to be printed. There were a lot of changes in the printing industry during the 19th century, just as there has been a lot in our own century.
What this all means for us who write historical fiction, think creatively, look at all the occupations that come just from the invention of the lithograph. There is the printer, the business man who owns the printing business, the artists who painted in the black and white prints and the artist who prepared the printing plates for the prints.
Wednesday, September 21, 2016
The General Store
Hi all,
Over time I hope to put more information in the blog about General Stores, they were a fixture of the 19th century, today we have large box stores but back then they had what were commonly known as General Stores.
Today I'd like to start with a postcard of Tuttle & Spice 1880 General Store. It's at Exit 68 Interstate 81 in Shenandoah Caverns, Virginia. The back of the postcard reads "Welcome to Yesterday! Step inside the old General Store amidst the scales, barrels, cracker boxes and pickle jars and experience part of our heritage. This General Store display is open to the public free of charge.
Over time I hope to put more information in the blog about General Stores, they were a fixture of the 19th century, today we have large box stores but back then they had what were commonly known as General Stores.
Today I'd like to start with a postcard of Tuttle & Spice 1880 General Store. It's at Exit 68 Interstate 81 in Shenandoah Caverns, Virginia. The back of the postcard reads "Welcome to Yesterday! Step inside the old General Store amidst the scales, barrels, cracker boxes and pickle jars and experience part of our heritage. This General Store display is open to the public free of charge.
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