The Panic of 1837 caused financial hardships for many. By 1842 the country was beginning to rebound. For some unknown reason (to me at this time) Vermont however had many filings for bankruptcy. However, there are a few things I learned. In 1841 Congress enacted a 2nd Bankruptcy Law (formerly an 1803 bankruptcy repealed) in the wake of the panics of 1837 & 1839. In 1843 the second Bankruptcy law was repealed amid many complaints of corruption and expenses.
Ask yourself how did your characters fair during the Panics and the Bankruptcy Laws. If not your characters perhaps their parents or grandparents. Was there bitterness in the hearts of others who were unable to file for bankruptcy and lost their farms and homes? Was your character bitter? Was your character honorable? Or was your character less than honorable and did that have a cause and effect on someone else that profoundly changed your character's life.
These are some of the questions I look at when addressing issues surrounding the dates in which my characters were living. Perhaps these tidbits you will find helpful in learning more about your characters.
Showing posts with label 1842. Show all posts
Showing posts with label 1842. Show all posts
Tuesday, August 15, 2017
1842 Fall Clothing Line
Below is an Advertisement with the list of items for the Fall season. This comes from the Nov. 4, 1842 Burlington Free Press. Note the various items listed. It might help you as a writer put in an article of clothing that is perhaps a bit different than your normal description given by authors.
Monday, August 14, 2017
1842 Fall Clothing Line
Below is an Advertisement with the list of items for the Fall season. This comes from the Nov. 4, 1842 Burlington Free Press. Note the various items listed. It might help you as a writer put in an article of clothing that is perhaps a bit different than your normal description given by authors.
Friday, August 11, 2017
1842 Hat Prices
Below is a copy of an ad from the New York Daily Tribune May 3, 1842. The advertisement is listing the price of various hats. I'll type them out because they are difficult to read:
Silk Hats @ $2.25, $2.50 & $3.00 (says it is a reduction of .50 cents from the former prices)
Fur Hat $4.00 compares other hat prices in the city at $4.50 & $5.00
Silk Hats @ $2.25, $2.50 & $3.00 (says it is a reduction of .50 cents from the former prices)
Fur Hat $4.00 compares other hat prices in the city at $4.50 & $5.00
Tuesday, August 1, 2017
Clip Boards of the 19th Century called Letter-Clips
A question a while back on a historical writer's loop was searching for when clipboards were in use during the 19th century. Thanks to Carla for her links to the email loop with the answers that gave me further direction in answering this question.
Here are Carla's references:
1880
An Attorney General's report 1880 lists the item.
1887
The Writer Vol. 1-2 referencing a letter-clip with a description of the board.
I found some earlier references:
1842
Below is an image of a letter clip in 1842 from The Practical Mechanice & Engineer's Magazine Vol. 1 Page 32.
The same image is in another magazine a year earlier 1841.
1865
Referenced in the Household documents of an estate.
1871
Referenced in a Patent book as similar to a letter-clip.
1874
A Practical Dictionary with a description of the item.
1883
The New Letter-Clip
Here are Carla's references:
1880
An Attorney General's report 1880 lists the item.
1887
The Writer Vol. 1-2 referencing a letter-clip with a description of the board.
I found some earlier references:
1842
Below is an image of a letter clip in 1842 from The Practical Mechanice & Engineer's Magazine Vol. 1 Page 32.
1865
Referenced in the Household documents of an estate.
1871
Referenced in a Patent book as similar to a letter-clip.
1874
A Practical Dictionary with a description of the item.
1883
The New Letter-Clip
Tuesday, April 11, 2017
Etiquette & Manners
Etiquette & Manners is something often discussed on some of my of the writer loops I belong to as they pertain to the 19th century. Through Google books I've found a great source of books regarding such topics. Below is a list ordered by the year they were published. I've gathered this resource list over the past two years from Google Books. Hope it helps you in your search for proper behavior in the time period of your setting.
1832 Domestic Manners of the Americans
1835 Pencil Sketches
1837 The Young Lady's Friend
1839 Miss Leslie's Behavior Book
1842 Elegant Extracts
1843 Etiquette or, A Guide to The Usages of Society with a Glance at Bad Habits
1854 Etiquette Social Ethics and the Curtiousy of Society
1854 The Behavior Book
1860 The Gentlemen's Book of Etiquette and Manners
1860 The Hand Book of Etiquette
1866 Marine's Sensible Letter Writer
1868 Manners or Happy Homes
1870 Good Manners a Manual of Ediquette
1872 The Ladie's Book of Etiquette and Manual of Politeness
1873 The Gentlemen's Book of Etiquette and Manual of Politeness
1884 Don't: A Manual of Mistakes and Improprieties More or Less
1888 Manners
1889 American Etiquette and Rules of Politeness
1889 Perfect Etiquette or How to Behave in social...
1892 Etiquette An Answer to the Riddle, When? Where? How?
1896 Social Etiquette or Manners and Customs of Polite Society
1897 Manners for Men
1897 Practical Letter Writing
1899 Twenty Letters in Letter Writing and Business
1832 Domestic Manners of the Americans
1835 Pencil Sketches
1837 The Young Lady's Friend
1839 Miss Leslie's Behavior Book
1842 Elegant Extracts
1843 Etiquette or, A Guide to The Usages of Society with a Glance at Bad Habits
1854 Etiquette Social Ethics and the Curtiousy of Society
1854 The Behavior Book
1860 The Gentlemen's Book of Etiquette and Manners
1860 The Hand Book of Etiquette
1866 Marine's Sensible Letter Writer
1868 Manners or Happy Homes
1870 Good Manners a Manual of Ediquette
1872 The Ladie's Book of Etiquette and Manual of Politeness
1873 The Gentlemen's Book of Etiquette and Manual of Politeness
1884 Don't: A Manual of Mistakes and Improprieties More or Less
1888 Manners
1889 American Etiquette and Rules of Politeness
1889 Perfect Etiquette or How to Behave in social...
1892 Etiquette An Answer to the Riddle, When? Where? How?
1896 Social Etiquette or Manners and Customs of Polite Society
1897 Manners for Men
1897 Practical Letter Writing
1899 Twenty Letters in Letter Writing and Business
Thursday, February 2, 2017
Letter Writing Part 2
In continuing with the theme of letter writing I'm posting
Ease in writing Letters must not degenerate to carelessness.
It ought, at the same time, to be remembered, that the ease and simplicity which I have recommended in epistolary correspondence, are not to be understood as importing entire carelessness. In writing to the most intimate friend, a certain degree of attention, both to the subject and the style, is requisite and becoming. It is no more than what we owe both to ourselves, and to the friend with whom we correspond. A slovenly and negligent manner ofwriting is a disobliging mark of want of respect. The liberty besides, of writing letters with too careless a hand, is apt to betray persons into imprudence in what they write. The first requisite, both in conversation and correspondence, is to attend to all the proper decorums which our own character, and that of others, demand. An imprudent expression in conversation may be forgotten and pass away; but when we take the pen into our hand, we must remember, that " Litera scripta manet." (What is written is permanent.)
Source: Elegant Extracts ©1842 pg. 386
NO ARGUMENT is necessary to show that a text-book on corre'' spondence is needed. The average student can solve difficult arithmetical problems, analyze 'Paradise Lost,' or read Greek, before he knows the requirements of an ordinary business letter. Much of the business done at the present day is by correspondence, and the only writing that many persons do is comprised in their letters. One's habits and abilities are judged by his letters,—and usually correctly. If he writes a well-arranged, neat, business-like letter, he is given credit for possessing like qualities in business. But if his letter is awkwardly worded, slovenly and carelessly written, we conclude he possesses similar traits of character. It is. important, therefore, that early training be given in neatness, correct forms, and established customs in writing letters.
. . .
A letter that is worth writing, is worth writing carefully. A slovenly letter is indicative of a slovenly man, and there is surely no compliment, but rather disrespect,. in sending such a letter to one's friends. Do not be afraid to write and re-write until a sentence is as nearly perfect as you can make it. From this practice you will acquire skill in composition. Prominent literary men and women do not allow their compositions to appear in print until they have been rewritten, corrected, and improved many times. Charles Darwin's manner of writing was, first, to make a rough copy, then have a fair copy made and corrected, then a new copy made, once more corrected, and sent to the printer; the printer's proofs were then corrected in pencil, reconsidered and written in ink; and then he was glad to have corrections and suggestions from others.
. . .
2. Social Letters are letters of sentiment; and embrace domestic or family letters, letters of affection, introduction, congratulation, condolence, advice, and all letters that are prompted by friendship or love.
3. Business Letters.—A business letter is a letter on public, private, or personal business. There are two classes of business letters. Apersonal business letter includes letters of merchants, bankers, manufacturers, and others in connection with their business, either as firms or individuals. An official letter is one written by or to a public officer on business pertaining to his office. This class embraces the letters of various officers of a city, state, or nation.
Source: Practical letter writing ©1897
Ease in writing Letters must not degenerate to carelessness.
It ought, at the same time, to be remembered, that the ease and simplicity which I have recommended in epistolary correspondence, are not to be understood as importing entire carelessness. In writing to the most intimate friend, a certain degree of attention, both to the subject and the style, is requisite and becoming. It is no more than what we owe both to ourselves, and to the friend with whom we correspond. A slovenly and negligent manner ofwriting is a disobliging mark of want of respect. The liberty besides, of writing letters with too careless a hand, is apt to betray persons into imprudence in what they write. The first requisite, both in conversation and correspondence, is to attend to all the proper decorums which our own character, and that of others, demand. An imprudent expression in conversation may be forgotten and pass away; but when we take the pen into our hand, we must remember, that " Litera scripta manet." (What is written is permanent.)
Source: Elegant Extracts ©1842 pg. 386
NO ARGUMENT is necessary to show that a text-book on corre'' spondence is needed. The average student can solve difficult arithmetical problems, analyze 'Paradise Lost,' or read Greek, before he knows the requirements of an ordinary business letter. Much of the business done at the present day is by correspondence, and the only writing that many persons do is comprised in their letters. One's habits and abilities are judged by his letters,—and usually correctly. If he writes a well-arranged, neat, business-like letter, he is given credit for possessing like qualities in business. But if his letter is awkwardly worded, slovenly and carelessly written, we conclude he possesses similar traits of character. It is. important, therefore, that early training be given in neatness, correct forms, and established customs in writing letters.
. . .
A letter that is worth writing, is worth writing carefully. A slovenly letter is indicative of a slovenly man, and there is surely no compliment, but rather disrespect,. in sending such a letter to one's friends. Do not be afraid to write and re-write until a sentence is as nearly perfect as you can make it. From this practice you will acquire skill in composition. Prominent literary men and women do not allow their compositions to appear in print until they have been rewritten, corrected, and improved many times. Charles Darwin's manner of writing was, first, to make a rough copy, then have a fair copy made and corrected, then a new copy made, once more corrected, and sent to the printer; the printer's proofs were then corrected in pencil, reconsidered and written in ink; and then he was glad to have corrections and suggestions from others.
. . .
2. Social Letters are letters of sentiment; and embrace domestic or family letters, letters of affection, introduction, congratulation, condolence, advice, and all letters that are prompted by friendship or love.
3. Business Letters.—A business letter is a letter on public, private, or personal business. There are two classes of business letters. Apersonal business letter includes letters of merchants, bankers, manufacturers, and others in connection with their business, either as firms or individuals. An official letter is one written by or to a public officer on business pertaining to his office. This class embraces the letters of various officers of a city, state, or nation.
Source: Practical letter writing ©1897
Friday, January 20, 2017
Tar For Greasing Wagons
I stumbled across this brief editorial comment made in "The American Agriculturist" in the August 1842 issue. Can't you just see your characters or ancestors mixing up a batch of axle grease for the wagons with this historical gem?
Tar for greasing wagons, we think an absurd article. In the hottest weather it soon gums up and becomes adhesive, and in cold weather is always so. Wherever iron axletrees are used, black lead mixed with grease is best:—or Flour mixed with Lard.
Monday, October 3, 2016
Citadel of South Carolina
The Citadel (military academy) has a wide range of history dating back to the 19th century to today.
It was organized by the state of South Carolina in 1842, the first graduates graduated Nov. 20 1846. There were six grads at the time. The history of the Citadel dates before 1842 with regard to Revolutionary War time and before the Civil War. As for the Civil War many graduates joined the confederate army.
There is a great summary of the history of the Citadel on the school's website
Here's an excerpt from the 1842 board concerning the mission of the school. "The Board have aimed at a system of education at once scientific and practical, and which, if their original design is carried out, will eminently qualify the Cadets there taught, for almost any station or condition of life."
It was organized by the state of South Carolina in 1842, the first graduates graduated Nov. 20 1846. There were six grads at the time. The history of the Citadel dates before 1842 with regard to Revolutionary War time and before the Civil War. As for the Civil War many graduates joined the confederate army.
There is a great summary of the history of the Citadel on the school's website
Here's an excerpt from the 1842 board concerning the mission of the school. "The Board have aimed at a system of education at once scientific and practical, and which, if their original design is carried out, will eminently qualify the Cadets there taught, for almost any station or condition of life."
Friday, September 9, 2016
Pregnancy
This news item was taken from the American Medical Intelligencer ©1842 on pregnancy. FYI Kiestein is a substance found floating in urine from a pregnant woman.
Kiestein as an Evidence of Pregnancy. ' By H. Letheby, A. L. S.— In No. 11 of the Guy's Hospital Reports there is a valuable paper upon this subject, by Dr. Bird, in which he enumerates many cases to prove the existence of this principle in the urine of pregnant women. Since the publication of that report I have had many opportunities of investigating the subject ; and, as the result will show, it forms an important addition to the already known symptoms of pregnancy. The object of this paper, however, is not only in furtherance of its value as such a test, but to point out certain precautions to be observed in the experiments, in order to prevent fallacy.
The urine should be procured at a time when the woman is as free from disease as possible ; and I believe that passed early in the morning, after rest, gives the least variable indications. This should be exposed, in a tall narrow glass, to a continuous temperature of about 70° of F. ; if a much lower temperature than this is used, say about 40°. I have known the urine stand for more than a fortnight without undergoing any change, although it be replete with kiestein or its principles, at a temperature of 70°. However, if the woman be pregnant, we shall observe, in two or three days, the first indication of its presence by the urine becoming turbid. In a day or two more a thin pellicle forms on its surface, and this gradually acquires consistence up to a fortnight from the onset of the experiment. But long before this time you will have noticed its characteristic odour; certainly not like cheese, to which Dr. Bird compares it, but precisely analogous to the smell of raw beef beginning to putrefy : it is emphatically a putrid smell. I have kept the urine more than a month after this, but it _never loses either its pellicle or peculiar odour.
Besides the error likely to arise from the adoption of too low a temperature, where the kiestien would not be separated, I would warn the earlier experimenter not to fall into the opposite error of confounding the pellicle which forms upon all urine on standing, especially that which contains the lithates in excess ; the more so as the general as well as microscopic appearance of this pellicle is often precisely like that of kiestein. The appearance I am now alluding to, however, is never accompanied with the puttid animal odour; but, on the contrary, gives out a copious smell of ammonia, and when disturbed falls immediately to the bottom of the liquid. These are the two especial distinctions.
On the value of this test I shall be very brief:—Of the 30 cases examined by Dr. Bird, 27 gave the required indications of the presence of kiestein ; the other 3 were at the same time suffering under febrile excitement. Dr. Bird
' London Med. Gazette, Dec. 24,1841, p. 505.
could not detect it in the urine of unimpregnated women, or after parturition. and during suckling.
In the American Medical Library, as quoted by the British and Foreign Medical Review for October last, is a report of the experiments of Drs. M'Pher- ters and Perry, the resident physicians at Philadelphia Hospital. These gentlemen found it in the urine of 24 out of 27 pregnant women. Of the three negative cases, two were not in health when experimented on ; further. they could not detect it in the urine of 27 unimpregnated women.
In ray own experiments, which have been made at all dates between the second and ninth month of utero-gestation, there was unquestionable evidence of kiestein in 48 out of 50 cases. I am unable to account for its absence in the two exceptions, for I took care at all times to have the urine from women as free from disorder as possible.
In 17 non-pregnant womea there was no indication of its presence. In examining the urine of 10 women during the time of suckling, I found it in all immediately after delivery, but that the evidence of its existence fell off at a period between the second and sixth months.
A question now naturally arises as to the cause of the presence of this principle, and what is its composition? It appears easily accounted for on the known sympathy that exists between the uterus and the breasts ; the latter of which, taking cognizance of the gravid condition of the uterus, prepares itself betimes for the proper performance of that function which by and by is to become its necessary duty. Certain principles analogous to those of milk being imperfectly secreted, may, in this nascent condition, become reabsorbed ; because, as Dr. Bird suggests, they do not find a ready outlet, and getting into the blood are excreted thence by the kidneys ; and this habit of reabsorption may go on for some little time after the birth of the child.
The composition of kiestein is not so easily made out: examined by the microscope it consists at first of a multitude of globules, varying in size from the one thirty-two thousandth to the one eight thousandth of an inch; after a time these break up, or coalesce and form flakes, and then crystals of triple phosphate generally become pretty abundant in it. This shows that the greasy appearance of the pellicle is not due, as Dr. Bird supposes, to the triple phosphate, for this is after formation ; nor are these globules composed of fat, for they are perfectly insoluble in ether. I have not been able to detect them in the uiine until it becomes turbid, so that they appear to be formed in the urine after expulsion. They are soluble in alkalies and in boiling acetic acid, and give all the reactions characteristic of coagulated albumen or fibrin : to these, then, they are most analogous ; but nothing hut an ultimate analysis can determine their identity or not. The globules do not differ in appearance from those contained in milk, but their complete insolubility in ether shows that they do differ.
9 Wrndsor Terrace, City Road, Dec. 6, 1841.
M. Dubois on the Auscultatory Signs of Pregnancy.—The uterine souffle is usually perceptible about the fourteenth or fifteenth week of pregnancy: the period at which it may be first heard, being, no doubt dependent upon the amount of development of the uterus and its elevation above the os pubis. The point at which it is most frequently audible is towards the middle of the height of the uterus on its anterior or lateral (generally the left side) part. In this respect M. Dubois differs from M. Naegele, who states that the common situation of the uterine blowing sound is in one of the inguinal regions, extending thence upwards. In most cases, the space over which it may be heard is limited to a circle of two or thiee inches in circumference. A curious circumstance connected with this sound is the occasional change- ableness of its situation ; on one day it is inaudible at a spot where it had been distinctly heard the day before, and vice versa.
Obstetrical auscnltators should be aware of this fact ; else they will be apt to be perplexed in some cases. We may mention likewise that the uterine souffle Taries much at different times in its loudness and distinctness, being one day scarcely audible, and on the next, perhaps, very distinct.
That the development of this sound is somehow dependent upon the circulation of the blood through the uterus, appears from the fact that it is always much enfeebled, or even altogether suspended, by the contractions of the organ during parturition—a fact which abundantly proves that the sound cannot proceed from the pressure of the gravid uterus on the iliac arteries, as some writers have alledged. The striking resemblance of the uterine bruit to that perceived in erectile tumors, and in aneurismal varices, confirms the above opinion. M. Dubois objects to the appellation of placentary or utero-placentary being applied to this blowing sound, for the reason that, although its locality most frequently corresponds with the attachment of the placenta, it continues to be audible for some time after the expulsion of this body, and in other cases after the death of the fœtus.
The other sound, that of the fœtal heart, is a still more decisive sign of pregnancy : the number of the pulsations varies, according to the experience of M. Dubois, from 135 to 150.' This tictac sound is usually most distinctly perceived on the anterior part of the abdomen somewhat to the left side : it is rarely audible before the completion of four, or four and a half, months of pregnancy.—Medico-Chir. Review, Jan. 1842. p. 197.
Kiestein as an Evidence of Pregnancy. ' By H. Letheby, A. L. S.— In No. 11 of the Guy's Hospital Reports there is a valuable paper upon this subject, by Dr. Bird, in which he enumerates many cases to prove the existence of this principle in the urine of pregnant women. Since the publication of that report I have had many opportunities of investigating the subject ; and, as the result will show, it forms an important addition to the already known symptoms of pregnancy. The object of this paper, however, is not only in furtherance of its value as such a test, but to point out certain precautions to be observed in the experiments, in order to prevent fallacy.
The urine should be procured at a time when the woman is as free from disease as possible ; and I believe that passed early in the morning, after rest, gives the least variable indications. This should be exposed, in a tall narrow glass, to a continuous temperature of about 70° of F. ; if a much lower temperature than this is used, say about 40°. I have known the urine stand for more than a fortnight without undergoing any change, although it be replete with kiestein or its principles, at a temperature of 70°. However, if the woman be pregnant, we shall observe, in two or three days, the first indication of its presence by the urine becoming turbid. In a day or two more a thin pellicle forms on its surface, and this gradually acquires consistence up to a fortnight from the onset of the experiment. But long before this time you will have noticed its characteristic odour; certainly not like cheese, to which Dr. Bird compares it, but precisely analogous to the smell of raw beef beginning to putrefy : it is emphatically a putrid smell. I have kept the urine more than a month after this, but it _never loses either its pellicle or peculiar odour.
Besides the error likely to arise from the adoption of too low a temperature, where the kiestien would not be separated, I would warn the earlier experimenter not to fall into the opposite error of confounding the pellicle which forms upon all urine on standing, especially that which contains the lithates in excess ; the more so as the general as well as microscopic appearance of this pellicle is often precisely like that of kiestein. The appearance I am now alluding to, however, is never accompanied with the puttid animal odour; but, on the contrary, gives out a copious smell of ammonia, and when disturbed falls immediately to the bottom of the liquid. These are the two especial distinctions.
On the value of this test I shall be very brief:—Of the 30 cases examined by Dr. Bird, 27 gave the required indications of the presence of kiestein ; the other 3 were at the same time suffering under febrile excitement. Dr. Bird
' London Med. Gazette, Dec. 24,1841, p. 505.
could not detect it in the urine of unimpregnated women, or after parturition. and during suckling.
In the American Medical Library, as quoted by the British and Foreign Medical Review for October last, is a report of the experiments of Drs. M'Pher- ters and Perry, the resident physicians at Philadelphia Hospital. These gentlemen found it in the urine of 24 out of 27 pregnant women. Of the three negative cases, two were not in health when experimented on ; further. they could not detect it in the urine of 27 unimpregnated women.
In ray own experiments, which have been made at all dates between the second and ninth month of utero-gestation, there was unquestionable evidence of kiestein in 48 out of 50 cases. I am unable to account for its absence in the two exceptions, for I took care at all times to have the urine from women as free from disorder as possible.
In 17 non-pregnant womea there was no indication of its presence. In examining the urine of 10 women during the time of suckling, I found it in all immediately after delivery, but that the evidence of its existence fell off at a period between the second and sixth months.
A question now naturally arises as to the cause of the presence of this principle, and what is its composition? It appears easily accounted for on the known sympathy that exists between the uterus and the breasts ; the latter of which, taking cognizance of the gravid condition of the uterus, prepares itself betimes for the proper performance of that function which by and by is to become its necessary duty. Certain principles analogous to those of milk being imperfectly secreted, may, in this nascent condition, become reabsorbed ; because, as Dr. Bird suggests, they do not find a ready outlet, and getting into the blood are excreted thence by the kidneys ; and this habit of reabsorption may go on for some little time after the birth of the child.
The composition of kiestein is not so easily made out: examined by the microscope it consists at first of a multitude of globules, varying in size from the one thirty-two thousandth to the one eight thousandth of an inch; after a time these break up, or coalesce and form flakes, and then crystals of triple phosphate generally become pretty abundant in it. This shows that the greasy appearance of the pellicle is not due, as Dr. Bird supposes, to the triple phosphate, for this is after formation ; nor are these globules composed of fat, for they are perfectly insoluble in ether. I have not been able to detect them in the uiine until it becomes turbid, so that they appear to be formed in the urine after expulsion. They are soluble in alkalies and in boiling acetic acid, and give all the reactions characteristic of coagulated albumen or fibrin : to these, then, they are most analogous ; but nothing hut an ultimate analysis can determine their identity or not. The globules do not differ in appearance from those contained in milk, but their complete insolubility in ether shows that they do differ.
9 Wrndsor Terrace, City Road, Dec. 6, 1841.
M. Dubois on the Auscultatory Signs of Pregnancy.—The uterine souffle is usually perceptible about the fourteenth or fifteenth week of pregnancy: the period at which it may be first heard, being, no doubt dependent upon the amount of development of the uterus and its elevation above the os pubis. The point at which it is most frequently audible is towards the middle of the height of the uterus on its anterior or lateral (generally the left side) part. In this respect M. Dubois differs from M. Naegele, who states that the common situation of the uterine blowing sound is in one of the inguinal regions, extending thence upwards. In most cases, the space over which it may be heard is limited to a circle of two or thiee inches in circumference. A curious circumstance connected with this sound is the occasional change- ableness of its situation ; on one day it is inaudible at a spot where it had been distinctly heard the day before, and vice versa.
Obstetrical auscnltators should be aware of this fact ; else they will be apt to be perplexed in some cases. We may mention likewise that the uterine souffle Taries much at different times in its loudness and distinctness, being one day scarcely audible, and on the next, perhaps, very distinct.
That the development of this sound is somehow dependent upon the circulation of the blood through the uterus, appears from the fact that it is always much enfeebled, or even altogether suspended, by the contractions of the organ during parturition—a fact which abundantly proves that the sound cannot proceed from the pressure of the gravid uterus on the iliac arteries, as some writers have alledged. The striking resemblance of the uterine bruit to that perceived in erectile tumors, and in aneurismal varices, confirms the above opinion. M. Dubois objects to the appellation of placentary or utero-placentary being applied to this blowing sound, for the reason that, although its locality most frequently corresponds with the attachment of the placenta, it continues to be audible for some time after the expulsion of this body, and in other cases after the death of the fœtus.
The other sound, that of the fœtal heart, is a still more decisive sign of pregnancy : the number of the pulsations varies, according to the experience of M. Dubois, from 135 to 150.' This tictac sound is usually most distinctly perceived on the anterior part of the abdomen somewhat to the left side : it is rarely audible before the completion of four, or four and a half, months of pregnancy.—Medico-Chir. Review, Jan. 1842. p. 197.
Monday, September 5, 2016
Christian Campgrounds
On Martha's Vineyard there is a great campground with gingerbread houses and a center tabernacle. My graduation exercise was held there and from what I understand it is still being used today for High School graduations.
During the 19th century there were a lot of these Christian Camp meetings set up. Old Orchard Beach (approx. 1842) in Maine, The Methodist Campground (1835) in Oak Bluffs, MA and Simpson Park Campground (1865) in Michigan. Each of these played an important part on people's lives but also on the general economy of a region.
Today, few Christian Campgrounds remain and those that have, have changed how they run the day to day of the camp. Many can not move their families for the summer to a campground.
I have not done an extensive search but I believe the Methodist were pioneers and leaders in the Christian Campgrounds and revivals.
During the 19th century there were a lot of these Christian Camp meetings set up. Old Orchard Beach (approx. 1842) in Maine, The Methodist Campground (1835) in Oak Bluffs, MA and Simpson Park Campground (1865) in Michigan. Each of these played an important part on people's lives but also on the general economy of a region.
Today, few Christian Campgrounds remain and those that have, have changed how they run the day to day of the camp. Many can not move their families for the summer to a campground.
I have not done an extensive search but I believe the Methodist were pioneers and leaders in the Christian Campgrounds and revivals.
Tuesday, August 9, 2016
Planting in April
The excerpt below comes from the first Farmer's Almanac in a combined package of year 1841-1844. And since many are now thinking of gardening I thought it might be interesting to look at what is on a Farmer's schedule for the month of April.
Farmer’s Calendar – April
Spring corn sowing should be now finished; let all remaining turnips be cleared from the land. The practice of keeping back turnips for late feed being at the expense of the succeeding corn crop, should be avoided; all plants which are suffered to run towards seed are, in that stage, great exhausters of the soil. The substitutes are rye, winter barley, and the mixed grasses. Lucern is well sown this month; it delights in a rich deep soil; contains sulphate of lime; gypsum, therefore, on most soils, makes it grow luxuriantly. Livestock prefer gypsumed lucern to any other. It is best sown in drills; by this means it may be easily kept clean by the hoe, and if the farmer takes the precaution to previously trench or subsoil the ground, it may be made to produce four or five good crops per annum or inferior dry land; the value of this grass in many parts of the country is unknown. If the farmer has procured any sprat or five-fingers, or any other oily fish, or animal manures, in the previous months, and mixed them with the earth, he may now be getting out the compost for his Swede turnips. In moist seasons all such oily manures produce very large crops. Cut and lay hedges, and roll and bush harrow grass land. All this work should be finished early in the month, to avoid the bleeding of the wood. Stone, pick, and clean meadows. Cubic petre and saltpeter may be advantageously employed this and the succeeding month, as a top-dressing for wheat, oats, barley (from say the 10th of April to the middle of May), and grass. Hand how your wheat, beans, and peas; it not only destroys weeds, but it facilitates the access of the gases and aquesous vapour of the atmosphere to the roots of the crop. Keep also the horse-hoe at work. Early fat lambs may now be selling off. If properly kept, good Down lambs, at thirteen weeks, will weigh five stone; but beware of any shortness of their keep, for they will never recover a check of this kind. Sell off the porkers; after warm weather commences, the sale of them is no longer certain. Sow carrots and parsnips, and subsoil the land on which you grow them. It does best when sown in fine powder (1 ½ cwt. per acre). on a moist morning. It increases both the produce of grain and of straw. It restores the colour of sickly-looking corn.
And the article goes on with stats from various farmers and the different soils and nutrients.
Farmer’s Calendar – April
Spring corn sowing should be now finished; let all remaining turnips be cleared from the land. The practice of keeping back turnips for late feed being at the expense of the succeeding corn crop, should be avoided; all plants which are suffered to run towards seed are, in that stage, great exhausters of the soil. The substitutes are rye, winter barley, and the mixed grasses. Lucern is well sown this month; it delights in a rich deep soil; contains sulphate of lime; gypsum, therefore, on most soils, makes it grow luxuriantly. Livestock prefer gypsumed lucern to any other. It is best sown in drills; by this means it may be easily kept clean by the hoe, and if the farmer takes the precaution to previously trench or subsoil the ground, it may be made to produce four or five good crops per annum or inferior dry land; the value of this grass in many parts of the country is unknown. If the farmer has procured any sprat or five-fingers, or any other oily fish, or animal manures, in the previous months, and mixed them with the earth, he may now be getting out the compost for his Swede turnips. In moist seasons all such oily manures produce very large crops. Cut and lay hedges, and roll and bush harrow grass land. All this work should be finished early in the month, to avoid the bleeding of the wood. Stone, pick, and clean meadows. Cubic petre and saltpeter may be advantageously employed this and the succeeding month, as a top-dressing for wheat, oats, barley (from say the 10th of April to the middle of May), and grass. Hand how your wheat, beans, and peas; it not only destroys weeds, but it facilitates the access of the gases and aquesous vapour of the atmosphere to the roots of the crop. Keep also the horse-hoe at work. Early fat lambs may now be selling off. If properly kept, good Down lambs, at thirteen weeks, will weigh five stone; but beware of any shortness of their keep, for they will never recover a check of this kind. Sell off the porkers; after warm weather commences, the sale of them is no longer certain. Sow carrots and parsnips, and subsoil the land on which you grow them. It does best when sown in fine powder (1 ½ cwt. per acre). on a moist morning. It increases both the produce of grain and of straw. It restores the colour of sickly-looking corn.
And the article goes on with stats from various farmers and the different soils and nutrients.
Friday, May 15, 2015
Pomatum
Pomatum is mostly a hairdressing which includes perfumed oil or an ointment. It is also used for skin and lips.
POMATUM. A greasy substance, made from suet, perfumed or medicated. The process of making pomatum is tedious, as the fat must be thoroughly cleansed, to prevent rancidity, which would soon overpower the perfume. The mode of proceeding is as follows:—Take any quantity of lteef or mutton suet, separate the membraneous parts, and cut the suet into small pieces, which are first to be washed in several waters; then pound the suet in a mortar, and drain off any moisture which may remain in it. When it has been reduced by long beating into a fine paste, melt it in a stewpan, and skim repeatedly, stirring well the whole time; when the scum has all risen, turn it out through a fine sieve, and let it get cold. Lay it by for use in a very cold situation.
Pomatum A Le Rose. Take some of the fat prepared as above, and put it into the water bath, (see Water Bath,) or if you have none, into a jar, which is to stand in a saucepan containing water, and melt it; then add an equal weight of freshly gathered rose leaves, (all flowers must be gathered very dry, and when the sun is not upon them,) and leave the whole to simmer for four hours; then strain through a sieve, and pass the leaves through a press, or wring them in a cloth, to get out all the grease. Put the pomatum into a cold place, and a few days afterwards" melt it again at a very slow heat, and pour it into pots. The same process is to be observed with all other flowers. A much more rapid way of making perfumed pomatums, is to melt the prepared suet, and just before it begins to get so cold as to set, and not before, otherwise the perfumes would be injured by heat, stir m a few drops of the essential oil, or essence, of any flowers, as otto of roses, oil of lavender, bergamot, &c.; but prepared in this way, there is not quite so delicate a perfume. If the pomatum is to be medicated by the addition of any drug, it is to be done in melting the grease, allowing it to remain sufficiently long in the water bath to extract all the virtues, then straining through a fine sieve, and allowing the pomatum to stand a few days before it is melted a second time. The colouring matter is to be introduced in the same way as the drugs, if it be in a solid state; but if in powder, it may be stirred in a few minutes before taking the melted fat from the fire. The quantity of
essence or essential oil to be used, may be ascertained by the smell; stir it in a little at a time, and continue until all the odour required is given to the mass.
Glove Pomatum. Melt two pounds of prepared suet, half beef and half mutton, and when it is beginning to melt, stir in half an ounce of oil of cloves, proceed as above stated, taking care in this, as in all cases where the pomatum is perfumed by essential oils or essences, that the second melting is performed by a very gentle heat.
Vanilla Pomatum. In this case, take two pounds of prepared fat, half of pork, (the fat from pork may be made by washing very fresh lard in several waters, and purifying it afterwards by heat and skimming, as for beef and mutton suet,) and the remainder of equal parts of beef and mutton; whilst the fat is hot, stir in one ounce of vanilla, in powder, and just as the fat is getting cool, an ounce of the essence of vanilla, which is made by infusing vanilla in spirits of wine, in such quantity as to give a high perfume. To give additional colour to this pomatum, some very finely powdered chocolate may be stirred in just before the fat is taken off and strained.
Pommade Au Bouquet. Mix equal quantities of rose, jessamine, and orange pomatum, (all made as recommended in the first receipt,) mix them well, and melt them in the water bath, stirring well. This pomatum may be put into pots at once, without a second melting, as the pomatums had already been prepared, and it is to remain in the water bath only a sufficient time to melt.
Pommade A La Marechaxe. Take a pound and a half of prepared fat, of beef and mutton in equal quantities, and proceed as in the first receipt; whilst it is warm, stir in one ounce of powdered cloves (sifted), two grains of amber, two grains of musk, and a quarter of a drachm of neroli. Do not strain or melt a second time, but put into pots at once.
Pommade Au Pot Pourri. The same quantity of prepared fat, of which onethird pork; proceed as above, and stir in half an ounce of bergamot, a quarter of an ounce of balsam of Peru, a drachm of neroli, and four grains of amber; have ready two ounces of each of jessamine, jonquille, and tuberose pomatum, previously melted, and stir up the whole together. Put into pots at once.
The above general instructions, pomatum making will dispense w
necessity of giving further receipts for perfumed pomatums for the hair. By changing the perfumes, and their quantities, any varieties may be made. Neither will it be necessary to say much about medicated pomatums, which, forthe greater part, are sold by druggists, in the forms of salves and ointments. In Paris, where the finest pomatums are made, [the above receipts have all been supplied by one of the first pomatum makers of the French capital,] all salves are also called Pommades; but as salves do not fall within the scope of this dictionary, only two or three celebrated receipts of medicated pomatums connected with the toilet will be added.
Pomatum To Restore The Growth Of The Hair. Melt half a pound of prepared beef fat, and half a pound of genuine bears' grease, with one ounce of virgin wax, and two ounces of olive oil. Keep them in the water bath for two hours, with a muslin bag, containing one ounce of bruised cloves, half an ounce of cinnamon, two bruised tonquin beans, and four grains of musk; let the bag in which the spices &c. are contained be large enough to allow them to swell. Strain, and put into pots. Colour may be given by putting a little carmine into the bag. This pomatum is in high repute on the Continent, under the name of the Sultana Pomatum. Dr. Bonnetti recommends that before using it the bald or thinly covered parts of the head should be washed several times with the following preparation :—Boil an ounce of cloves in a quart of water for an hour; strain and filter; put into this, when cold, one ounce of quick lime, and having shaken it up, let it settle, then decant carefully. This stimulant, which is perfectly safe, is said to have an extraordinary effect in restoring vitality; and if the hair be washed with it, it is made strong, and does not fall off.
Cucumber Pomatum. For the skin, said to have been used by the celebrated Ninon de l'Enclos. Melt two pounds of prepared lard, with three large cucumbers, peeled, and cut into small pieces; let these • remain in the water bath for three or four hours; then strain and press the cucumbers, adding what comes from them to the other fat; put by to cool, and three days afterwards reduce again to a liquid, by gradual heat; set by to cool, and repeat this once more; the third time, just before the fat cools, stir in some neroli, sufficient to give a fine perfume.
Pomatum For The Lips. Take of sweet oil of almonds, eight ounces; virgin wax, three ounces; orcanetteroot,bruised, two ounces; put them in the water bath for one hour, then strain through a fine sieve, and beat it up in a mortar with six drops of essence of rose. Put into pots.
Source: The Domestic Dictionary and Housekeeper's Manual ©1842
Three Good Ways Of Making Cheap PomaTum.—First: Half an ounce of white wax; half an ounce of spermaceti; eight ounces of olive oil; dissolve in a basin set in hot water before the fir*; add perfume just before pouring into bottles.
Second: A quarter of a pound of hog's lard, and three quarters of a tumbler full of olive oil; a dessert spoonful of eau de Cologne, and a little gum. \Varm the lard and oil, till the lard melts, and then stir in the other ingredients. Cool before using.
Third: Half a pint of olive oil; half an ounce of yellow beeswax; half an ounce of spermaceti, and some perfume. Cut the wax and sperm small, and melt in the oil. Then add the perfume.
Source: The Ladies' Home Magazine ©1859
To make Jessamine Butter, or Pomatum.
Hog's lard melted, and well washed in fair water, laid an inch thick in a dish, and strewed over with jessamine flowers, will imbibe the scent, and make a very fragrant pomatum.
Source: The New Family Receipt Book ©1837
In this, and all other similar cases, the pomatum must be cut up into very small pieces, after the domestic manner of "chopping suet," prior to its being infused in the alcohol. The action of the mixture is simply a change of place in the odoriferous matter, which leaves the fat body by the superior attraction, or affinity, as the chemists say, of the spirits of wine, in which it freely dissolves.
The major part of the extract can be poured or drawn off the pomatum without trouble, but it still retains a portion in the interstices, which requires time to drain away, and this must be assisted by placing the pomatum in a large funnel, supported by a bottle, in order to collect the remainder. Finally, all the pomatum, which is now called washed pomatum, is to be put into a tin, which tin must lie set into hot water, for the purpose of melting its contents ; when the pomatum thus becomes liquefied, any extract that is still in it rises to the surface, and can be skimmed off.
The washed pomatum is preserved for use in the manufacture of dressing for the hair, for which purpose it is exceedingly well adapted, on account of the purity of the grease from which it was originally prepared, but more particularly on account of a certain portion of odor which it still retains, and were it not used up in this way, it would be advisable to put for a second infusion in spirit, and thus a weaker extract could be made serviceable for lower priced articles.
Source: American Journal of Pharmacy ©1854
POMATUM. A greasy substance, made from suet, perfumed or medicated. The process of making pomatum is tedious, as the fat must be thoroughly cleansed, to prevent rancidity, which would soon overpower the perfume. The mode of proceeding is as follows:—Take any quantity of lteef or mutton suet, separate the membraneous parts, and cut the suet into small pieces, which are first to be washed in several waters; then pound the suet in a mortar, and drain off any moisture which may remain in it. When it has been reduced by long beating into a fine paste, melt it in a stewpan, and skim repeatedly, stirring well the whole time; when the scum has all risen, turn it out through a fine sieve, and let it get cold. Lay it by for use in a very cold situation.
Pomatum A Le Rose. Take some of the fat prepared as above, and put it into the water bath, (see Water Bath,) or if you have none, into a jar, which is to stand in a saucepan containing water, and melt it; then add an equal weight of freshly gathered rose leaves, (all flowers must be gathered very dry, and when the sun is not upon them,) and leave the whole to simmer for four hours; then strain through a sieve, and pass the leaves through a press, or wring them in a cloth, to get out all the grease. Put the pomatum into a cold place, and a few days afterwards" melt it again at a very slow heat, and pour it into pots. The same process is to be observed with all other flowers. A much more rapid way of making perfumed pomatums, is to melt the prepared suet, and just before it begins to get so cold as to set, and not before, otherwise the perfumes would be injured by heat, stir m a few drops of the essential oil, or essence, of any flowers, as otto of roses, oil of lavender, bergamot, &c.; but prepared in this way, there is not quite so delicate a perfume. If the pomatum is to be medicated by the addition of any drug, it is to be done in melting the grease, allowing it to remain sufficiently long in the water bath to extract all the virtues, then straining through a fine sieve, and allowing the pomatum to stand a few days before it is melted a second time. The colouring matter is to be introduced in the same way as the drugs, if it be in a solid state; but if in powder, it may be stirred in a few minutes before taking the melted fat from the fire. The quantity of
essence or essential oil to be used, may be ascertained by the smell; stir it in a little at a time, and continue until all the odour required is given to the mass.
Glove Pomatum. Melt two pounds of prepared suet, half beef and half mutton, and when it is beginning to melt, stir in half an ounce of oil of cloves, proceed as above stated, taking care in this, as in all cases where the pomatum is perfumed by essential oils or essences, that the second melting is performed by a very gentle heat.
Vanilla Pomatum. In this case, take two pounds of prepared fat, half of pork, (the fat from pork may be made by washing very fresh lard in several waters, and purifying it afterwards by heat and skimming, as for beef and mutton suet,) and the remainder of equal parts of beef and mutton; whilst the fat is hot, stir in one ounce of vanilla, in powder, and just as the fat is getting cool, an ounce of the essence of vanilla, which is made by infusing vanilla in spirits of wine, in such quantity as to give a high perfume. To give additional colour to this pomatum, some very finely powdered chocolate may be stirred in just before the fat is taken off and strained.
Pommade Au Bouquet. Mix equal quantities of rose, jessamine, and orange pomatum, (all made as recommended in the first receipt,) mix them well, and melt them in the water bath, stirring well. This pomatum may be put into pots at once, without a second melting, as the pomatums had already been prepared, and it is to remain in the water bath only a sufficient time to melt.
Pommade A La Marechaxe. Take a pound and a half of prepared fat, of beef and mutton in equal quantities, and proceed as in the first receipt; whilst it is warm, stir in one ounce of powdered cloves (sifted), two grains of amber, two grains of musk, and a quarter of a drachm of neroli. Do not strain or melt a second time, but put into pots at once.
Pommade Au Pot Pourri. The same quantity of prepared fat, of which onethird pork; proceed as above, and stir in half an ounce of bergamot, a quarter of an ounce of balsam of Peru, a drachm of neroli, and four grains of amber; have ready two ounces of each of jessamine, jonquille, and tuberose pomatum, previously melted, and stir up the whole together. Put into pots at once.
The above general instructions, pomatum making will dispense w
necessity of giving further receipts for perfumed pomatums for the hair. By changing the perfumes, and their quantities, any varieties may be made. Neither will it be necessary to say much about medicated pomatums, which, forthe greater part, are sold by druggists, in the forms of salves and ointments. In Paris, where the finest pomatums are made, [the above receipts have all been supplied by one of the first pomatum makers of the French capital,] all salves are also called Pommades; but as salves do not fall within the scope of this dictionary, only two or three celebrated receipts of medicated pomatums connected with the toilet will be added.
Pomatum To Restore The Growth Of The Hair. Melt half a pound of prepared beef fat, and half a pound of genuine bears' grease, with one ounce of virgin wax, and two ounces of olive oil. Keep them in the water bath for two hours, with a muslin bag, containing one ounce of bruised cloves, half an ounce of cinnamon, two bruised tonquin beans, and four grains of musk; let the bag in which the spices &c. are contained be large enough to allow them to swell. Strain, and put into pots. Colour may be given by putting a little carmine into the bag. This pomatum is in high repute on the Continent, under the name of the Sultana Pomatum. Dr. Bonnetti recommends that before using it the bald or thinly covered parts of the head should be washed several times with the following preparation :—Boil an ounce of cloves in a quart of water for an hour; strain and filter; put into this, when cold, one ounce of quick lime, and having shaken it up, let it settle, then decant carefully. This stimulant, which is perfectly safe, is said to have an extraordinary effect in restoring vitality; and if the hair be washed with it, it is made strong, and does not fall off.
Cucumber Pomatum. For the skin, said to have been used by the celebrated Ninon de l'Enclos. Melt two pounds of prepared lard, with three large cucumbers, peeled, and cut into small pieces; let these • remain in the water bath for three or four hours; then strain and press the cucumbers, adding what comes from them to the other fat; put by to cool, and three days afterwards reduce again to a liquid, by gradual heat; set by to cool, and repeat this once more; the third time, just before the fat cools, stir in some neroli, sufficient to give a fine perfume.
Pomatum For The Lips. Take of sweet oil of almonds, eight ounces; virgin wax, three ounces; orcanetteroot,bruised, two ounces; put them in the water bath for one hour, then strain through a fine sieve, and beat it up in a mortar with six drops of essence of rose. Put into pots.
Source: The Domestic Dictionary and Housekeeper's Manual ©1842
Three Good Ways Of Making Cheap PomaTum.—First: Half an ounce of white wax; half an ounce of spermaceti; eight ounces of olive oil; dissolve in a basin set in hot water before the fir*; add perfume just before pouring into bottles.
Second: A quarter of a pound of hog's lard, and three quarters of a tumbler full of olive oil; a dessert spoonful of eau de Cologne, and a little gum. \Varm the lard and oil, till the lard melts, and then stir in the other ingredients. Cool before using.
Third: Half a pint of olive oil; half an ounce of yellow beeswax; half an ounce of spermaceti, and some perfume. Cut the wax and sperm small, and melt in the oil. Then add the perfume.
Source: The Ladies' Home Magazine ©1859
To make Jessamine Butter, or Pomatum.
Hog's lard melted, and well washed in fair water, laid an inch thick in a dish, and strewed over with jessamine flowers, will imbibe the scent, and make a very fragrant pomatum.
Source: The New Family Receipt Book ©1837
In this, and all other similar cases, the pomatum must be cut up into very small pieces, after the domestic manner of "chopping suet," prior to its being infused in the alcohol. The action of the mixture is simply a change of place in the odoriferous matter, which leaves the fat body by the superior attraction, or affinity, as the chemists say, of the spirits of wine, in which it freely dissolves.
The major part of the extract can be poured or drawn off the pomatum without trouble, but it still retains a portion in the interstices, which requires time to drain away, and this must be assisted by placing the pomatum in a large funnel, supported by a bottle, in order to collect the remainder. Finally, all the pomatum, which is now called washed pomatum, is to be put into a tin, which tin must lie set into hot water, for the purpose of melting its contents ; when the pomatum thus becomes liquefied, any extract that is still in it rises to the surface, and can be skimmed off.
The washed pomatum is preserved for use in the manufacture of dressing for the hair, for which purpose it is exceedingly well adapted, on account of the purity of the grease from which it was originally prepared, but more particularly on account of a certain portion of odor which it still retains, and were it not used up in this way, it would be advisable to put for a second infusion in spirit, and thus a weaker extract could be made serviceable for lower priced articles.
Source: American Journal of Pharmacy ©1854
Saturday, May 2, 2015
Catfish Part 2
I decided to include this additional tidbit regarding the catfish. Hopefully you'll find this useful for your novels or general knowledge.
Here's a list of the various kinds of catfish and some descriptions about them.
The Common Catfish
The Brown Catfish
Description. Head flattened, with a granular surface above; its length compared to the total length, is as one to four and a half. The upper jaw slightly the longest. Lateral line slightly concave under the dorsal fin, and then straight. Breadth of the head slightly less than its length. Eyes small, two-tenths of an inch in diameter, and far apart. Nostrils double; the posterior pair half an inch apart, patent, oval, with an erectile cirrus on their anterior margins ; the anterior pair subtubular, and near the edge of the jaws. A long cirrus, stout and fleshy at its base, at each angle of the jaws, and an inch and a half long. A pair of slender cirri 0-6 long, on the summit of the head; four others under the lower jaw, arranged in a curved line an inch in extent; the internal pair shortest, and all slender. Humeral bone with a blunt spine over the pectoral, and a short obtuse angular projection beneath. Mouth very ample and dilatable. A band of small recurved teeth in each jaw, broadest in the centre, and diminishing to a point on the sides. Vomer and palatines smooth. Two rounded patches of minute recurved teeth in the upper pharyngeals; opposite to them, a few scattering minute teeth.
The dorsal fin commences half an inch posterior to a point vertical to the origin of the peetorals, subquadrate, and a little more than an inch high. Its first ray is a robust spine, slightly serrated on its posterior margin, and much shorter than the remaining rays. Adipose fin rounded, and opposite the termination of the anal fin. Pectorals placed low down, and in advance of the posterior angle of the opercle; its spine stout and pointed, with its anterior and posterior margins serrated, and its upper and under surfaces corrugated: the spine is shorter than the four following rays. Ventrals somewhat pointed, and originate at a point three-tenths of an inch behind the end of the first dorsal. Anal fin with seventeen rays, an inch and a half long, and six-tenths of an inch high. Caudal fin slightly but distinctly emarginate ; the accessory rays indistinct. Vent with a double orifice.
Color. A uniform dusky brown above, approaching to black ; beneath bluish white. Fins and cirri black ; the former tinged with red.
The Black Catfish
Characteristics. Black. Adipose dorsal long and slender; the rays of the fins passing beyond the membrane. Caudal emarginate, ro'und, with numerous accessory rays. Length four to eight inches.
Description. Surface smooth and sealeless. Lateral line distinct, nearly straight, slightly convex under the dorsal fin. Head depressed, sloping. The barbels, in number and arrangement, resemble those of the preceding species. Lips fleshy, with minute punctures. Teeth in the jaws minute, long, conical and crowded. Tongue smooth. Humeral bone with a long concealed spine above the pectoral, and a short blunt rudimentary process directed downward at the upper angle of the branchial aperture.
The dorsal fin higher than long, arising midway between the pectorals and ventrals; the first ray an acute triangular spine ; its anterior surfaces marked with oblique rugze or wrinkles ; its anterior edge smooth; a small accessory bone at its anterior base; six soft rays, the first and second longest. The adipose dorsal as far from the last rays of the first dorsal, as the anterior ray of that fin is from the end of the snout; long and slender, rounded, and laciniate at the tips. The pectoral fins nearly on the plane of the abdomen, and anterior to the upper angle of the branchial aperture, containing one spinous and seven branched rays: the spinous ray robust, triangular, slightly curved, with its anterior edge roughened, and its sides channelled as in the spine of the first dorsal; a small filamentous ray is connected with it, its posterior edges with decurved spines; the second, third and fourth rays somewhat longer than the spines. Ventrals small and feeble, pointed, their tips scarcely reaching the third anal ray; the third and fourth rays longest. Anal fin long; the first four successively longer, when they become subequal to the last four or five rays, when they gradually diminish in length. Caudal slightly emarginate, rounded at the tips.
Color. Deep black, occasionally blackish brown above and on the sides ; ashen grey beneath.
The Blue Catfish of Ohio and the Lakes.
The Yellow Catfish
The Channel Catfish
The Mud Catfish, recognized by the scarified and clouded appearance of its skin.
The small Black Bullhead of the northern streams and lakes.
Young Catfish, with the rudiments of an adipose fin.
Source: Reptiles & Amphibia ©1842
Bull-head. Black Catfish. Horned Pout. Small Catfish. Schuylkill Cat,
Adipose fin free posteriorly; head flat, wedge shaped; skin thick; branchiostegals, eight to eleven; dorsal fin higher than long, with six branched rays; lateral line incomplete; caudal fin truncate; color varies from nearly black to yellowish; anal fin about twenty-one rays. Length, 18 inches.
"This fine species is not frequently met with, and only in the rivers, where occasionally specimens are captured, associated with the following common species."
Long-jawed Cat. Common Catfish.
Lower jaw projects beyond the upper; head longer than broad and narrowed in front; profile steep and convex; color dark reddish or blackish; size of foregoing.
This is the most abundant species of the catfish found in the State. It is a lover of quiet waters, with a deep deposit of mud on the bottom of the stream. It would not be a misnomer to designate it as the ' mud ' catfish. They afford moderate sport to the angler, and, except in July and August, are a fair article of food. They are less abundant in the smaller creeks of the northern part of the State."
A. natalis, Le S., var. cupreus, Jord. (Silurus lividus, Raf.-, &c.) Yellow Cat. Chubby Cat.
Body stout, with large head; upper jaw projecting; color yellowish brown. This may possibly occur in the valley of the Delaware, but it is difficult to distinguish species so variable.
White Catfish. Channel Cat of the Potomac.
Body slender, compressed; head conical; branchiostegals eight to nine; six rays in dorsal fin; caudal deeply forked; mouth rather narrow, upper jaw longer; rays of anal fin about twentyone; pale olive bluish above and silvery below. Length, I8 inches.
Source: New Jersey State Documents ©1890
CATFISH
We do not now appreciate our several varieties of catfish. But coming generations will do so. The- fish is valuable for food. Some of the smaller varieties, living in running waters, being as delicate as any of our native fish. As is known to all our people, the catfish is extremely hardy and thrives in all our waters. To propagate him, it is only necessary to put the proper variety in waters suited to him, and then give such waters reasonable protection. The Mississippi river and its tributaries is the home of the catfish. The largest catfish of which I have authentic information, weighed 196 pounds, and was caught in the Mississippi, near St. Louis. My authority is M. B. Curtis, the oldest fish dealer of St. Louis. The largest catfish which came under my personal observation was caught in the Mississippi river, near St. Louis, in 1879, and was presented to Professor Spencer F. Baird, for the National Museum, by the Missouri Fish Commission. It weighed 150 pounds, and, when examined, proved to be an undescribed species. It has been named by Professors Jordan and Gilbert, lctal-ur'us pondero-sus—Bean—Great catfish. They think this variety of catfish attains a larger size than any other.
There are small varieties which never exceed two pounds in weight, and probably much less. The Missourian who visits the magnificent Fairmount Park of Philadelphia, is amused to read the signs on the little resturants by the roadside, “catfish and waffles," showing the dish to be a delicacy in the estimation of the inhabitants of the Quaker City. Catfish spawn in spring and summer. The eggs are deposited in lumps or masses, varying in size from a small marble to a hen’s egg. The spawn and young fry are carefully guarded by the parent fish until able to care for themselves. From experiments made by Col. Marshall McDonald, Assistant U. S. Fish Commissioner, at '1 Commissioner for Virginia, he concludes that the male acts as guar. . This care by the parent, and the formidable spines, or stickers, with which the catfish is armed. account for his ability to hold his own in our depleted waters. It is a veritable eXemplification of the “survival of the fittest.”
Source: Appendix to the House and Senate Journals ©1885
Here's a list of the various kinds of catfish and some descriptions about them.
The Common Catfish
The Brown Catfish
Description. Head flattened, with a granular surface above; its length compared to the total length, is as one to four and a half. The upper jaw slightly the longest. Lateral line slightly concave under the dorsal fin, and then straight. Breadth of the head slightly less than its length. Eyes small, two-tenths of an inch in diameter, and far apart. Nostrils double; the posterior pair half an inch apart, patent, oval, with an erectile cirrus on their anterior margins ; the anterior pair subtubular, and near the edge of the jaws. A long cirrus, stout and fleshy at its base, at each angle of the jaws, and an inch and a half long. A pair of slender cirri 0-6 long, on the summit of the head; four others under the lower jaw, arranged in a curved line an inch in extent; the internal pair shortest, and all slender. Humeral bone with a blunt spine over the pectoral, and a short obtuse angular projection beneath. Mouth very ample and dilatable. A band of small recurved teeth in each jaw, broadest in the centre, and diminishing to a point on the sides. Vomer and palatines smooth. Two rounded patches of minute recurved teeth in the upper pharyngeals; opposite to them, a few scattering minute teeth.
The dorsal fin commences half an inch posterior to a point vertical to the origin of the peetorals, subquadrate, and a little more than an inch high. Its first ray is a robust spine, slightly serrated on its posterior margin, and much shorter than the remaining rays. Adipose fin rounded, and opposite the termination of the anal fin. Pectorals placed low down, and in advance of the posterior angle of the opercle; its spine stout and pointed, with its anterior and posterior margins serrated, and its upper and under surfaces corrugated: the spine is shorter than the four following rays. Ventrals somewhat pointed, and originate at a point three-tenths of an inch behind the end of the first dorsal. Anal fin with seventeen rays, an inch and a half long, and six-tenths of an inch high. Caudal fin slightly but distinctly emarginate ; the accessory rays indistinct. Vent with a double orifice.
Color. A uniform dusky brown above, approaching to black ; beneath bluish white. Fins and cirri black ; the former tinged with red.
The Black Catfish
Characteristics. Black. Adipose dorsal long and slender; the rays of the fins passing beyond the membrane. Caudal emarginate, ro'und, with numerous accessory rays. Length four to eight inches.
Description. Surface smooth and sealeless. Lateral line distinct, nearly straight, slightly convex under the dorsal fin. Head depressed, sloping. The barbels, in number and arrangement, resemble those of the preceding species. Lips fleshy, with minute punctures. Teeth in the jaws minute, long, conical and crowded. Tongue smooth. Humeral bone with a long concealed spine above the pectoral, and a short blunt rudimentary process directed downward at the upper angle of the branchial aperture.
The dorsal fin higher than long, arising midway between the pectorals and ventrals; the first ray an acute triangular spine ; its anterior surfaces marked with oblique rugze or wrinkles ; its anterior edge smooth; a small accessory bone at its anterior base; six soft rays, the first and second longest. The adipose dorsal as far from the last rays of the first dorsal, as the anterior ray of that fin is from the end of the snout; long and slender, rounded, and laciniate at the tips. The pectoral fins nearly on the plane of the abdomen, and anterior to the upper angle of the branchial aperture, containing one spinous and seven branched rays: the spinous ray robust, triangular, slightly curved, with its anterior edge roughened, and its sides channelled as in the spine of the first dorsal; a small filamentous ray is connected with it, its posterior edges with decurved spines; the second, third and fourth rays somewhat longer than the spines. Ventrals small and feeble, pointed, their tips scarcely reaching the third anal ray; the third and fourth rays longest. Anal fin long; the first four successively longer, when they become subequal to the last four or five rays, when they gradually diminish in length. Caudal slightly emarginate, rounded at the tips.
Color. Deep black, occasionally blackish brown above and on the sides ; ashen grey beneath.
The Blue Catfish of Ohio and the Lakes.
The Yellow Catfish
The Channel Catfish
The Mud Catfish, recognized by the scarified and clouded appearance of its skin.
The small Black Bullhead of the northern streams and lakes.
Young Catfish, with the rudiments of an adipose fin.
Source: Reptiles & Amphibia ©1842
Bull-head. Black Catfish. Horned Pout. Small Catfish. Schuylkill Cat,
Adipose fin free posteriorly; head flat, wedge shaped; skin thick; branchiostegals, eight to eleven; dorsal fin higher than long, with six branched rays; lateral line incomplete; caudal fin truncate; color varies from nearly black to yellowish; anal fin about twenty-one rays. Length, 18 inches.
"This fine species is not frequently met with, and only in the rivers, where occasionally specimens are captured, associated with the following common species."
Long-jawed Cat. Common Catfish.
Lower jaw projects beyond the upper; head longer than broad and narrowed in front; profile steep and convex; color dark reddish or blackish; size of foregoing.
This is the most abundant species of the catfish found in the State. It is a lover of quiet waters, with a deep deposit of mud on the bottom of the stream. It would not be a misnomer to designate it as the ' mud ' catfish. They afford moderate sport to the angler, and, except in July and August, are a fair article of food. They are less abundant in the smaller creeks of the northern part of the State."
A. natalis, Le S., var. cupreus, Jord. (Silurus lividus, Raf.-, &c.) Yellow Cat. Chubby Cat.
Body stout, with large head; upper jaw projecting; color yellowish brown. This may possibly occur in the valley of the Delaware, but it is difficult to distinguish species so variable.
White Catfish. Channel Cat of the Potomac.
Body slender, compressed; head conical; branchiostegals eight to nine; six rays in dorsal fin; caudal deeply forked; mouth rather narrow, upper jaw longer; rays of anal fin about twentyone; pale olive bluish above and silvery below. Length, I8 inches.
Source: New Jersey State Documents ©1890
CATFISH
We do not now appreciate our several varieties of catfish. But coming generations will do so. The- fish is valuable for food. Some of the smaller varieties, living in running waters, being as delicate as any of our native fish. As is known to all our people, the catfish is extremely hardy and thrives in all our waters. To propagate him, it is only necessary to put the proper variety in waters suited to him, and then give such waters reasonable protection. The Mississippi river and its tributaries is the home of the catfish. The largest catfish of which I have authentic information, weighed 196 pounds, and was caught in the Mississippi, near St. Louis. My authority is M. B. Curtis, the oldest fish dealer of St. Louis. The largest catfish which came under my personal observation was caught in the Mississippi river, near St. Louis, in 1879, and was presented to Professor Spencer F. Baird, for the National Museum, by the Missouri Fish Commission. It weighed 150 pounds, and, when examined, proved to be an undescribed species. It has been named by Professors Jordan and Gilbert, lctal-ur'us pondero-sus—Bean—Great catfish. They think this variety of catfish attains a larger size than any other.
There are small varieties which never exceed two pounds in weight, and probably much less. The Missourian who visits the magnificent Fairmount Park of Philadelphia, is amused to read the signs on the little resturants by the roadside, “catfish and waffles," showing the dish to be a delicacy in the estimation of the inhabitants of the Quaker City. Catfish spawn in spring and summer. The eggs are deposited in lumps or masses, varying in size from a small marble to a hen’s egg. The spawn and young fry are carefully guarded by the parent fish until able to care for themselves. From experiments made by Col. Marshall McDonald, Assistant U. S. Fish Commissioner, at '1 Commissioner for Virginia, he concludes that the male acts as guar. . This care by the parent, and the formidable spines, or stickers, with which the catfish is armed. account for his ability to hold his own in our depleted waters. It is a veritable eXemplification of the “survival of the fittest.”
Source: Appendix to the House and Senate Journals ©1885
Thursday, April 2, 2015
Whale Oil
I grew up on Martha's Vineyard which was a huge whaling port during the 19th Century and Whale oil was what drove them to the open seas. Below are some tidbits about whale oil that some of you may not have known. The primary use of the whale oil was for lamps but it had other uses as well.
Whale-oil prepared by the method just described, is of a pale honey-yellow colour; but sometimes, when the blubber from which it is procured happens to be of the red kind, the oil appears of a reddish-brown colour. When first extracted, it is commonly thick, but after standing some time, a mucilaginous substance subsides, and it becomes tolerably limpid and transparent. Its smell is somewhat offensive, especially when it is long kept. It consists of oil, properly so called, a small portion of spermaceti, and a little gelatin. At the temperature of 40°, the latter substances become partially concrete, and make the oil obscure, and at the temperature of 82°, render it thick with flaky crystals. It is sold by the ton of 252 gallons, wine-measure. A gallon of oil, by measure, weighs 7 lb. 10 oz.
Source: The Whale Fishery ©1820
Using Whale Oil Soap to help protect fruit trees:
The manner in which Capt. Randall uses the whale oil soap, and which we consider the most important part of his communication, is as follows:—eight to ten pounds of whale oil soap are put into a common pail, to which a sufficient quantity of warm water is added, so that when well mixed together, the whole is about the consistence of good'thick paint. With this pail of soap, thinned in this manner, the man having a small tin pail, or bag, or pocket, filled with fine sand, tied round bis waist, with a coarse crash cloth, and a paint brush, is ready for operations. He first wets his cloth with soap, then scatters on some dry sand, and gives the trunk and branches a good rubbing; nfter which, with a hand brush, he puts on a coat of the soap, prepared as above, equal to a thick coat of paint. The time selected for the operation is just at the termination of a storm of rain, when the moss, or any roughness on the bark, will yield more readily to rubbing.
Source: Magazine of Horticulture ©1842
Increasing Consumption of'Whale-oil.—It appears worthy of remark, that notwithstanding the large consumption of coal fur gas, which has in a great degree superseded the use of oil for street-lighting, the aggregate consumption of whale-oil has very materially increased. This fact is of course referable to the fashion now become very general of burning table-lamps in the *ace of candles in our dwellings; but it must excite surprise in the mind of every one when first made acquainted with the fact, that during this time the use of candles in dwellings, and especially of wax-candles, has also increased in a greater proportion than the population. It has been suggested, and with much apparent reason, that this increase may be consequent upon the greater brilliancy of the streets since they have been lighted with gas, since we have thus been made dissatisfied with the quantum of light previously thought sufficient within our houses. Certain it is, that our apartmcnU are much more brilliantly lighted now than they were before the introduction of coal-gas, whether that invention be chargeable with the increase or not.—Porter's Progress of the Nation,
Source: The Penny Magazine ©1843
Whale-oil prepared by the method just described, is of a pale honey-yellow colour; but sometimes, when the blubber from which it is procured happens to be of the red kind, the oil appears of a reddish-brown colour. When first extracted, it is commonly thick, but after standing some time, a mucilaginous substance subsides, and it becomes tolerably limpid and transparent. Its smell is somewhat offensive, especially when it is long kept. It consists of oil, properly so called, a small portion of spermaceti, and a little gelatin. At the temperature of 40°, the latter substances become partially concrete, and make the oil obscure, and at the temperature of 82°, render it thick with flaky crystals. It is sold by the ton of 252 gallons, wine-measure. A gallon of oil, by measure, weighs 7 lb. 10 oz.
Source: The Whale Fishery ©1820
Using Whale Oil Soap to help protect fruit trees:
The manner in which Capt. Randall uses the whale oil soap, and which we consider the most important part of his communication, is as follows:—eight to ten pounds of whale oil soap are put into a common pail, to which a sufficient quantity of warm water is added, so that when well mixed together, the whole is about the consistence of good'thick paint. With this pail of soap, thinned in this manner, the man having a small tin pail, or bag, or pocket, filled with fine sand, tied round bis waist, with a coarse crash cloth, and a paint brush, is ready for operations. He first wets his cloth with soap, then scatters on some dry sand, and gives the trunk and branches a good rubbing; nfter which, with a hand brush, he puts on a coat of the soap, prepared as above, equal to a thick coat of paint. The time selected for the operation is just at the termination of a storm of rain, when the moss, or any roughness on the bark, will yield more readily to rubbing.
Source: Magazine of Horticulture ©1842
Increasing Consumption of'Whale-oil.—It appears worthy of remark, that notwithstanding the large consumption of coal fur gas, which has in a great degree superseded the use of oil for street-lighting, the aggregate consumption of whale-oil has very materially increased. This fact is of course referable to the fashion now become very general of burning table-lamps in the *ace of candles in our dwellings; but it must excite surprise in the mind of every one when first made acquainted with the fact, that during this time the use of candles in dwellings, and especially of wax-candles, has also increased in a greater proportion than the population. It has been suggested, and with much apparent reason, that this increase may be consequent upon the greater brilliancy of the streets since they have been lighted with gas, since we have thus been made dissatisfied with the quantum of light previously thought sufficient within our houses. Certain it is, that our apartmcnU are much more brilliantly lighted now than they were before the introduction of coal-gas, whether that invention be chargeable with the increase or not.—Porter's Progress of the Nation,
Source: The Penny Magazine ©1843
Friday, March 14, 2014
1842 February Weather
Below is a weather chart taken from a book simply entitled documents. It is dealing with all kinds of documents presented to the Senate in the state of Massachusetts. Finding records of weather and temperatures during the 19th century is difficult but once in a while you come upon something such as this. Do searches for snowstorm, or rainfall, etc. as well as the state you're looking for. You might be surprised what you may find.
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