19th Century Medical Books

Below is a resource list of Medical books folks had available to them during the 19th century. This is not a complete list but something to start from.

1827 The Medical Companion

1831 A Treatise on Family Medicine

1845 A Family Medicine Directory

1860 Homoeopathic Family Medicine

1865 Household Medicine Surgery Sick Room

1871 The Family Medical Guide

1883 The Indian Household Medicine Guide

American Buggy

Today's post includes a quote from 1795-1895 One Hundred Years of Commerence ©1895 as well as 4 images from the 1859-1860 New York Carriage Makers Magazine. There are many different styles of buggies so I've selected only four to give you some variety.

To sum up the American Buggy in terms of the 19th century:
"The buggy is purely American in its origin, and is without doubt the greatest achievement of American carriage-makers. The body may be of any form, but the running part is always of the same, or nearly the same, type. Its common-sense construction is wholly unlike the work of any other country. It is simpler, lighter, stronger, and cheaper than any other style of vehicle, and is so admirable in all respects that it is not likely to go out of use for at least another century."

Below are a two sketches of the American Buggy.

This is probably the most common shape of the American Buggy, as I've scene so far from my research.

This design is larger than other's I've found as well. There is a smaller buggy for one person used for hunting as well.

Celery

In 1860 Theophilus Roessie and Henry Steel Olcott wrote a small book called "How to Cultivate and Perserve Celery."
In the preface we find this interesting tidbit:
"So with celery. In its wild state, in which it is found in ditches throughout Europe, it is rank, coarse, and even poisonous, but by cultivation it becomes crisp, sweet, juicy, and of an agreeable flavor."

Not being a gardner I found it interesting that there was/is varieties in celery, including Summer and Winter varieties.

SUMMER CELERY.
VARIETIES.
After an experience of many years, with a great number of varieties of celery, I have narrowed my list to the following few kinds which I recommend as most profitable for general cultivation:
No. 1. Early White Solid.
No. 2. Joint do
No. 3. New Silver Leaf.
No. 4. Red Solid, or Rose-colored.
No. 5. Celeriac—or Turnip-rooted.
The varieties 1, 2, and 4 are best. I recommend number 1 for an early, and number 2 for the main crop. There are doubtless other kinds which under peculiar circumstances are valuable, but none I think which in every respect are so valuable, both to the market-gardener and the private cultivator, as those above mentioned.

If you're interested in more information about planting, growing and making a profit off of raising celery here's a link to How to Cultivate & Preserve Celery

Measuring Cups

This is not a thorough study on measuring cups during the 19th century. However there are a few tidbits to be aware of.

For example in the 1810 The New Family Receipt Book they don't have a measurement of one cup. They refer to a common tea cup, ordinary tea cup, one coffee cup.
I have found images of (Victorian) pewter measuring cups on the Internet. I've also found tin measuring cups dating back around 1840.
The earliest cookbook that I found any measurements for was in the 1830 Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry Cakes and the measurements were in pounds, ounces and quarts, pints. However there do have "A tea-spoonful of salt." The only cup measurement was again a tea-cup. 1/2 pint I started to referenced around this time as well, but never referred to as one cup.

By the end of the century I found glass measuring cups available as well as some high end copper and brass measuring cups.

Scarlet Summer Squash

One of my favorite vegetables is Summer Squash (Yellow), so I researched how it was prepared in the 19th century. The only recipes I found were for frying it. Personally, I've never had it fried. I like it steamed and served with salt and butter. However, I also enjoy the summer squash casserole I've had a various church dinners.

While I was searching for summer squash information I found this unique post:
"The scarlet summer squash is a new and beautiful flat variety, from France, of the acorn species, of a fine scarlet colour." Taken from The Farmer's and Planter's Encyclopedia of rural affairs ©1851.

Of the five books that reference Scarlet Summer Squash they basically repeated the sentence above. The earliest date was from 1841, the latest 1860.

My best guess is the vegetable is no longer in production. However, it would be interesting to find other references from local historical societies that explore the various crops raised in their areas. This will be one of those backseat topics. One that I will continue to note while researching other sources.

This Scarlet squash does have me curious. How did it taste? How well did it grow? Was the color a turn off? Or did this squash not reproduce well? How similar in taste is it to summer squash? Research! You can get lost in it.

Etiquette & Manners

Etiquette & Manners is something often discussed on some of my of the writer loops I belong to as they pertain to the 19th century. Through Google books I've found a great source of books regarding such topics. Below is a list ordered by the year they were published. I've gathered this resource list over the past two years from Google Books. Hope it helps you in your search for proper behavior in the time period of your setting.

1832 Domestic Manners of the Americans
1835 Pencil Sketches
1837 The Young Lady's Friend
1839 Miss Leslie's Behavior Book
1842 Elegant Extracts
1843 Etiquette or, A Guide to The Usages of Society with a Glance at Bad Habits
1854 Etiquette Social Ethics and the Curtiousy of Society
1854 The Behavior Book
1860 The Gentlemen's Book of Etiquette and Manners
1860 The Hand Book of Etiquette
1866 Marine's Sensible Letter Writer
1868 Manners or Happy Homes
1870 Good Manners a Manual of Ediquette
1872 The Ladie's Book of Etiquette and Manual of Politeness
1873 The Gentlemen's Book of Etiquette and Manual of Politeness
1884 Don't: A Manual of Mistakes and Improprieties More or Less
1888 Manners
1889 American Etiquette and Rules of Politeness
1889 Perfect Etiquette or How to Behave in social...
1892 Etiquette An Answer to the Riddle, When? Where? How?
1896 Social Etiquette or Manners and Customs of Polite Society
1897 Manners for Men
1897 Practical Letter Writing
1899 Twenty Letters in Letter Writing and Business

50 Largest Cities 1880, 1850

Below is a graph of the largest cities in America from census reports. 1880 is in the left hand column and 1850 is the right. Charleston, SC is highlighted showing it's decline from 1850 to 1880.

If you'd like to view the original source here is a link

Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge

The bridge was built for the railroad and commerce between Canada and the U.S. A temporary bridge went up in 1848 then the completed bridge in 1855. However it wasn't limited to trains, a toll was established for horse & carriage and carriage passengers. In 1860 daily trains crossed the bridge. It was closed in 1897 and dismantled. An interesting tidbit was that the cables were found to not have deteriorate of the course of 50 years of use.
Houghtaling's Handbook of Useful Information ©1884 has this to say:
Railway Suspension Bridge, Niagara Falls.
Engineer. John A. Roebling. Height of towers on American side, 88 feet. Height of towers on Canada side, 78 feet. Length of bridge, 800 feet. Width of bridge, 24 feet. Height Lbove the river, 250 feet. Number of cables, 4. Diameter of cables, 10 inches, containing about 4,000 miles of wire. Ultimate capacity of the 4 cables, 12,400 tons. Total weight of bridge, 800 tons. Distance between railway track and carriage road below, 28 feet. Cost of construction, 500.000 dollars. Bridge first opened for railway traffic, March 8, 1855. Estimated depth of water in the channel beneath the bridge, 250 feet. Velocity of current,30 miles per hour. Velocity of Whirlpool Rapids,27 miles per hour Quantity of water passing through the gorge per minute, 1,500,000,000 cubic feet.

In Burke's descriptive guide for Niagara ©1850 we find even more tidbits about the bridge and it's original construction.

THE SUSPENSION BRIDGE?
This truly fairy-like work was commenced in February, 1849, under the suprintendence of Charles Ellet, Jr., Esq., of Philadelphia, an Engineer of good previous reputation, and who, in this work, added much to his fame.
The bridge was contracted to be built for the " Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge Company," on the Canada side, and " The Niagara Falls International Bridge Company," on the American side conjointly ; a bill for the purpose being passed by the Legislature of each country.
The manner in which the first line of connection was formed, was at once simple, yet ingenious. A kite was procured, to the tail of which was a string, and by flying this on the one side, and letting it out until it was over the other side, the gorge was spanned by the string, by which a cord was drawn Awful catastrophe.
across, and by means of this cord, a rope of sufficient strength to draw a cable, which latter, being well secured on both sides, was the means of transit for the first wire-cable of 36 strands, No. 10 wire, which was 1160 feet in length. Towers had now been erected on each bank, 800 feet apart, by which this wire-cable was secured, and on the 13th of March, just one month from the commencement, Mr. Ellet crossed in an iron basket, suspended from the cable. This conveyance was used constantly by the workmen in constructing the bridge. And even many persons paid for the novelty of a trip across in this frail track.
A foot-bridge, three feet in width, was soon constructed, and over this a great number of persons passed, each paying 25 cents to the contractor. A similar foot-bridge was now formed parallel to this, and the basket-cable in the middle.
A terrific scene occurred just about this time. Whilst the workmen were busy at the second footbridge, which was constructed about 250 feet from the American side, and about 150 from the British, a tornado from the s. w., struck it, turning it quite over. Six men were at work upon the flooring of the bridge at this awful moment, two of whom in a most unaccountable manner made their way to the shore upon fragments of boards. The unfinished structure was torn and wafted backwards and forwards like the broken web of a spider, and four helpless human beings, 200 feet from the shore, supported by two strands of No. 10 wire, were in constant expectation of a headlong fall and plunge into the rapids below ! Oh, who can fathom those men's thoughts just then ? But the tiny thread which held them to existence, proved strong enough to outlast the gale. On the first cessation of the tornado's force, a brave fellow-workman manned the iron basket, and with a ladder proceeded amid the pelting of the furious rain to save the sufferers. He reached the wreck ; he placed his ladder in communication with it, and the basket thus affording a means by which all were brought back safe to terra-firma, uninjured in person, but well nigh scared to death.
On the 26th of July following, Mr. Ellet drove a span of horses and a heavy carriage over and back, accompanied by his lady.
A disagreement, which had for some time existed between the directors and Mr. Ellet, now came to an open rupture, and the work was discontinued for some time.
The bridge, which we see, is not the structure Height of the Bridge.
originally intended. This being merely preparatory to the great structure, which was to have been suspended from stone towers, 70 feet high, and which would have been 10 feet higher than the present bridge, and wholly independent of it
The present bridge was at first economically formed of very slight materials, it not being expected to last longer than, until the great bridge was constructed, about a year and a half. It has, however, been strengthened materially, and is now capable of sustaining 250 tons, and is in use as a thoroughfare, unshaken by the greatest pressure.
The floor of the bridge is 230 feet above the river, and the depth of the river immediately under the bridge is 250 feet

Turpentine Making

Another occupation that you wouldn't think much about today but is something that was quite popular in the 19th century, especially in the east coast Southern states was that of Turpentine making.

Below is a clipping from Trumbell White in "Our Wonderful Progress" ©1902

TURPENTINE AND RESIN
Dialect writers find a fruitful field among the "tar-heels" of the Carolinas, Alabama and Georgia. In the cool depths of the turpentine woods, with the gashed trees yielding up their resinous gum, the balmy air and the picturesque "hackers," "dippers" and "scrapers," with the ever-vigilant "rider" watching everything, is a phase in southern life which has long been the delight of authors and the pleasure of the artists. The crudity of the implements and the stills used in the making of turpentine and resin lends additional interest to this old industry, and the gypsy-like habits of the turpentine-makers add to their ragged, illiterate charms.

Turpentine is the distilled gum of the pine trees of North and South Carolina, Alabama, Georgia and part of Florida. The season begins when the first spring sap rises and ends when cold weather checks the flow of the tree's blood. In January or February the "hacker," with his keenbl'cded ax, begins the round which ends with the season. He is the expert of the woods and knows his trees, and just how much hacking they will stand. His task is to cut the "boxes" in which the thick gum of the wounded tree will collect. A box is a wide incision about six inches deep, a wedge-shaped cut in the tree, and he hacks from 90 to 100 boxes a day. The first 'boxes at cut near the roots of the tree, and they are cut close together, to the height of a man's head, as can be done without killing the pine. The hacker leaves a width 'A bark between each box, so as to preserve the virality of the tree. When the trees are leased to the turpentine-makers the terms of the lease limit the number of boxes to each tree, but when it is desired to work the pine to the fullest extent the gashes are carried up to a height of twenty feet or more.

After the hacker comes the man who "corners" the boxes. This "corner" is a cut in the top of the box, to guide the sap into the cavities left for the gum, and the man who "works" the "crop" goes systematically from box to box, starting the sap anew with fresh incisions, working in this way 10,000 boxes during the season. The sap or gum fills the boxes with a clear, sticky, thick fluid, and this is removed by the "dipper." Scattered through the woods are barrels in which the "dipper" deposits the gum, which is then hauled to the still. About a quart of sap is taken from each box by means of the trowel-shaped scoop used by the dipper, and then the hacker comes along and starts the flow afresh by wounding the tree again. The turpentinemaker watches his men closely, for the tarheels are an easy-going people and require to be urged by the "rider," who goes through the woods on horseback, examining the crop, hurrying the dippers and hackers, and sending the barreled gum to the still.

The first or "virgin" sap, which flows in the spring, makes the best resin, and the poorest is the product of the hardened gum which is left on the sides of the boxes when the sap "turns down" in the fall. This is removed by the "scraper," who moves
through the woods with his scraping tool, gathering the leavings.

The still is a large copper vat, hooded with a close-fitting air-tight cover, in which is a funnel which in turn is connected with the worm of the stilL The worm runs down into another vat near at hand, and in this vat the fumes or vapors of the heated gum are distilled into turpentine. Fire under the copper beats the gum, and the volatile parts rise to the funnel, pass into the still and are condensed by the water in the second vat into spirits of turpentine. The residuum left in the vat is the resin of commerce, which is passed through a series of strainers and sieves to the barrels, which are made on the spot. The turpentine, however, cannot be barreled so easily, for it will work through an ordinary barrel. It is placed in white pine barrels, which have been coated inside with several coats of strong, hot glue, until the barrel is impervious to the subtle fluid.

The trees are worked for five or six seasons, and then the turpentine-maker moves to another part of the woods. He started in Xorth Carolina, crossed over to South Carolina, and is still moving toward the gulf. Forest fires destroy the pines faster than the hacker does, for the inflammable trees catch the sparks readily, and the flames sweep over the large areas before they die out. Careful owners of turpentine woods have the pine straw and fallen underbrush raked away from their trees before the season begins, and, collecting this material in some safe spot, wait for a quiet day, when there is no wind, and then they burn the rakings.

Negroes are the common laborers of the turpentine woods, but white men are plentiful. They live in rough shanties in the
D, with the stables for mules aud horses near at hand. No work is more healthful than turpentine making, for it is all out of doors in the depths of the balmy, health-giving pines, free from the malaria of the swamps and from sudden changes of weather.
end of quote

I found many turpentine makers in the 1860 census of one of the county's in Florida.

Tin Can Timeline

In 1810 a British inventor invents the tin can. It's very thick at this time.

1813 the first canning factory is opened.
(early seals were made with lead, which we now knows led to lead poisoning.)

1822 William Underwood founded a canning company in Boston. You've probably seen the Underwood logo when you've purchased Deviled Ham. It wasn't until 1836 (another date I found was 1839) that he shifted from glass to steel cans coated with tin.

1846 a machine to make tin cans is invented. It produces sixty tin cans per hour. Prior to that the production of tin cans was 6 per hour.

1858 first can opener invented by Ezra Warner

1860 Baltimore canner Isaac Soloman added calcium chloride to the boiling water to sterilization and reduced the time from 5 to 6 hours to 30 minutes.

1861-1864 US military uses tin can during the Civil War

1866 patent for the tin can with a key opener is invented.

1870 an easier to use can opener is invented by William Lyman

1897 research found by Underwood's grandson and biologist from MIT that spores were contained in the meats canned and would cause the "swells" in the cans. They found that heat at 250 degrees for 10 minutes killed the spores. The process wasn't patented but worked.

Pony Express

The oldest book I found specifically on the Pony Express was ©1908. There are many articles and references to the Pony Express in publications dating much earlier to it. And if you're like me, you learned a little about the Pony Express in school. And I'm certain there are many tales that were true and untrue at the time, especially with William F. Cody having been a rider.

Google books has a copy of "A Thrilling and Truthful History of the Pony Express" ©1908 by William Lightfoot Visscher.

The roots of the express started in the 1850's but developed in the Apr 1860 to what we know now as the Pony Express. There were 184 stations placed at 10 mile intervals and covered 2,000 miles. Ten miles being the max length a horse could travel at full gallop. The rider would exchange horses and only take the pouch or mailbag with him. The bag was called Mochila basically Spanish for backpack or pouch. You can read a good overview at Wikipedia for more details.

There's a lot of romance and folklore concerning these riders. They are fun to explore and think of ways to creatively use them in a story.

Block Planes

Hi all,

My dad has an incredible antique tool collection. I was hoping to photograph these tools to show on my blog but that wasn't possible without taking apart his display. I managed to pick up a couple of his planes and was surprised to find the bottoms weren't all flat.

Okay, some of you probably knew this but I didn't. My dad went on to explain that the various designs in the planes were for different cuttings, in much the same way we use a router today. This made me think back on the numerous door casings I'd seen over the years in older and Victorian homes and gave me a greater appreciation for all the hard work that went into making them. Think of the crown molding, the chair rails, etc. All of those curves were done by hand.

There's an article in American Woodworker Jun 1999 about Hand-Planned Moldings if you'd like to read further. There are a couple of photographs in which you'll see Wooden Block Planes.

I hope to have some photographs in the future but that will be quite a few months away. In the meantime you can search for Wooden Block Planes and find some images. Few show the bottom of the plane, the actual working edge, but you'll get the idea. And the articles gives you a greater appreciation for how the intrigue molding was made.

Wooden Block Planes have been around for centuries, in 1860 a cast iron bodied planes were developed by Leonard Bailey who sold his patents to Stanley Rule & Level in 1869. This design is still produced today.

If you'd like more information about Block Planes there is a great book out there "The Handplane Book" by Garrett Hack, John S. Sheldon, several pages of which are available for preview at Google books.

Here are a couple of pages from the 1894-1985 Fall Montgomery Ward Catalogue in full scan so you can read the details.
Pages 1 & 2
Pages 3

Toys - Dolls

Here's a great resource that has quite a few pictures of dolls from 1860 to 1980. Jennifer McKendry has done a great job on this and I believe those of you who are writing during this time period and have female characters, will enjoy browsing through her site.

Jennifer McKendry's A History of Dolls for Dollhouses from 1860 to 1980

Roses

Today I'm posting some information about roses from the 19th century. There was a lot of cultivation of this flower done during this century. This information comes from The rose: It's history, poetry, culture and classification ©1860.

Pruning & Training
Pruning roses at the time of transplanting, the principal object to be attained is relief to the plant by taking away all the wood and branches which the diminished root may not be able to support. The mode of pruning depends very much upon the condition of the plant. If it is very bushy, all the weaker branches should be cut away, leaving not more than three or four of the strongest shoots, and shortening even those down to a few eyes. If it is desired that the plant should continue dwarf and bushy, the new wood should be cut down to the last two eyes, and every half grown or slender shoot cut out. These two eyes will each throw out a branch; then cut these branches down to the two eyes and again their produce until a symmetrical habit is formed, with close, thick foliage. There should not be sufficient wood allowed to remain to make it crowded; and if there should be danger of this, some of the branches, instead of being cut down to two eyes should be cut out altogether.

Climbing roses, when planted, should be cut down almost to the ground, and also carefully thinned out. Only a few of the strongest branches should be preserved, and the new wood of these cut down to two eyes each.

The preceding remarks are applicable to roses at the time of planting; they should also be pruned every year—the hardy varieties in the autumn or winter, and the more tender in the spring. For all roses that are not liable to have part of their wood killed by the cold, the autumn is decidedly the best time for pruning; the root, having then but little top to support, is left at liberty to store up nutriment for a strong growth the following season. The principal objects in pruning, are the removal of the old wood, because it is generally only the young wood that produces large and fine flowers; the shortening and thinning out of the young wood, that the root, having much less wood to sup port, may devote all its nutriment to the size and beauty of the flower; and the formation of a symmetrical shape. If an abundant bloom is desired without regard to the size of the flower, only the weak shoots should be cut out, and the strong wood should be shortened very little; each bud will then produce a flower. By this mode, the flowers will be small and the growth of new wood very short, but there will be an abundant and very showy bloom. If, however, the flowers are desired as large and as perfect as possible, all the weak wood should be cut out en tirely, and all the strong wood of the last season's formation should be cut down to two eyes. The knife should .always be applied directly above a bud and sloping upward from it. The preceding observations apply principally to rose bushes or dwarf roses ; with pillar, climbing and tree roses, the practice should be somewhat different. The two former require comparatively little pruning; they require careful thinning out, but should seldom be shortened. The very young side shoots can sometimes be shortened in, to prevent the foliage from becoming too thick and crowded.

Pillars For Roses can be made of trellis work, of iron rods in different forms, or of wood, but they should enclose a space of at least a foot in diameter. The cheapest plan, and one that will last many years, is to make posts of about l.J. or 2 inches square, out of locust or pitch-pine plank, and connect them with common hoop-iron. They should be the length of a plank—between twelve and thirteen feet—and should be set three feet in the ground, that they may effectually resist the action of the wind. The Rose having been cut down to the ground, is planted inside of the pillar and will make strong growths the first season. As the leading shoots appear, they should be trained spirally around the outside of the pillar, and sufficiently near each other to enable them to fill up the intermediate space with their foliage. These leading shoots will then form the permanent wood, and the young side shoots, pruned in from year to year, will produce the flowers, and at the flowering season cover the whole pillar with a mass of rich and showy bloom. If the tops of the leading shoots lie down at all, they should be shortened down to the first strong eye, because, if a weak bud is left at the top, its growth will be for a long time weak. The growth of different varieties of roses is very varied; some make delicate shoots and require little room, while others, like the Queen of the Prairies, are exceedingly robust and may require a larger pillar than the size we have mentioned.

Climbing roses require very much the same treatment as pillar roses, and are frequently trained over arches, or in festoons from one pillar to another. In these the weak branches should also be thinned- out and the strong ones be allowed to remain without being shortened, as in these an abundant bloom is wanted more than large flowers. In training climbing roses over any flat surface, as a trellis wall or side of a house, the principal point is so to place the leading shoots that all the intermediate space may be filled up with foliage. They can either be trained in fan-shape with side shoots growing out from a main stem, or one leading shoot can be encouraged and trained in parallel horizontal lines to the top, care being taken to preserve sufficient intermediate space for the foliage. Where no shoots are wanted, the buds can be rubbed off before they push out. No weak shoots should be allowed to grow from the bottom, but all the strong ones should be allowed to grow as much as they may. When the intermediate space is filled with young wood and foliage, all the thin, email shoots should be cut out every year and the strongest budi only allowed to remain, which forming strong branches, will set closely to the wall and preserve a neat appearance.

The production of roses out of season, by forcing, was, as we have shown, well known to the ancient Romans, and from them has been handed down to the present time. But the retarding of roses by means of a regular process of pruning, owes its origin to a comparatively modern date. This process is mentioned both by Lord Bacon and Sir Robert Boyle. The latter says, " It is delivered by the Lord Verulam, and other naturalists, that if a rose bush be carefully cut as soon as it is done bearing in the summer, it will again bear roses in the autumn. Of this many have made unsuccessful trials, and thereupon report the affirmation to be false; yet I am very apt to think, that my lord was encouraged by experience to write as he did. For, having been particularly solicitous about the experiment, I find by the relation, both of my own, and other experienced gardeners, that this way of procuring autumnal roses, will, in most rose-bushes, commonly fail, but succeed in some that are good bearers ; and, accordingly, having this summer made trial of it, I find that of a row of oushes cut in June, by far the greater number promise no autumnal roses; but one that hath manifested itself to be of a vigorous and prolific nature, is, at this present, indifferently wellstored with those of the damask kind. There may, also, be a mistake in the species of roses; for experienced gardeners inform me that the Musk-Rose will, if it be a lusty plant, bear flowers in autumn without cutting; and, therefore, that may unjustly be ascribed to art, which is the bare production of nature." Thus, in quaint and ancient style, discourseth the wise and pious philosopher, on our favorite flower, and also mentions the fact, that a red rose becomes white, on being exposed to the fumes of sulphur. This, however, had been observed before Sir Robert's time. Notwithstanding his doubts, it is now a well-established fact, that the blooming of roses may be retarded by cutting them back to two eyes after they have fairly commenced growing, and the flower buds are discoverable. A constant succession can be obtained, where there is a number of plants, by cutting each one back a shorter or longer distance, or at various periods of its growth. In these cases, however, it very often will not bloom until autumn, because the second effort to produce flowers is much greater than the first, and is not attended with success until late in the season.

However desirable may be this retarding process, it cannot be relied on as a general practice, because the very unusual exertion made to produce the flowers a second time, weakens the plant, and materially affects its prosperity the subsequent year.

There is, indeed, but one kind of summer pruning that is advantageous, which is the thinning out of the flower-buds as soon as tiiey appear, in order that the plant may be burdened with no more than it can fully perfect, and the cutting off all the seed vessels after the flower has expanded and the petals have fallen. Until this last is done, a second bloom cannot readily be obtained from the Bengal Rose and its sub-classes, the Tea and Noisette, which otherwise grow and bloom constantly throughout the season.

In connection with the subject of this chapter, we would impress upon our readers the absolute, the essential importance of cultivation—of constantly stirring the soil in which the Rose is planted ; and we scarcely know of more comprehensive directions in a few words than the reply of an experienced horticulturist to one who asked the best mode of growing fine fruits and flowers. The old gentleman replied that the mode could be described in three words, "cultivate, cultivate, cultivate." After the same manner, we would impress the importance of these three words upon all those who love well-grown and beautiful roses. They are indeed multum in parvo—the very essence of successful culture. The soil cannot be ploughed, dug or stirred too much; it should be dug and hoed, not merely to keep down the weeds, but to ensure the health and prosperity of the plant. Cultivation is to all plants and trees, manure, sun and rain. It opens the soil to the nutritious gas of the atmosphere, to the beneficial influence of light, and to the morning and evening dew. It makes the heavy soil light and the light soil heavy ; if the earth is saturated with rain, it dries it ; if burned up with drought, it moistens it. Watering is often beneficial, and is particularly so to roses just before and during the period of bloom; but in an extremely dry season, if we were obliged to choose between the watering-pot and the spade, we should most unhesitatingly give the preference to the latter.

Archaeology Becomes a Science

One of the unique aspects of history in the 19th century was the development of the science of Archaeology. It was during this century that scientific method was applied to excavations. By 1860 the concept of laying out the grids or blocks for the excavation then tracking the stratigraphic layers and preserving many features in place began.

I stumbled across this information about archaeology while researching ice skates in the 19th century, (tomorrow's post.) It was also in 1860 that archaeologist discovered bones were used as blades for skating.

Ice Box Refrigeration

Below are some interesting facts regarding refrigeration using an icebox. Often times today we think of those in the 19th century of not having refrigeration. And in terms of what we have today, that's somewhat true. However, below I've listed a few facts to help us rethink what our ancestors might have been using in the 19th century.

A lawsuit: Alaska Refrigerator Co. v. Wisconsin Refrigerator Co. et al. (Circuit Court, AT. D. Illinois. July 13,1891.)
Dealt with a patent violation: Here's the facts. The original patent No. 8,463, reissued October 22, 1878 and originally issued July 24th, 1877.

In another lawsuit it states "The original letters patent were granted to Azel S. Lyman, as inventor, Mar. 25, 1856 and were extended for seven years from Mar. 25, 1879 and were reissued to Lyman, Dec. 26, 1871 ...

This notes that the ice box was patented as early as 1856.

According to Ellen Plante in her book "The American Kitchen." She states that iceboxes were available in 1860 but not widely used until 1880.

In 1864 we have reference to the Refrigerator (icebox) in "The American Home cook Book: with several hundred excellent recipes by American Lady ©1864.

Census

In researching family genealogies I've discovered the valuable uses of censuses. But in the 19th century there were very new. The first census in the U.S. was in 1790.

2nd 1800 It counted Men under 10, M10 & Under 16, M 16 & under 26, M 26 & Under 45, M 45 & up as well as the same for Females. It also listed the Names of Heads of families
3rd 1810
4th 1820
5th 1830
6th 1840
7th 1850 This census marked a change they attempted to count every member of the household including women, children & slaves.
8th 1860 This census counted American Indians
9th 1870
10th 1880 This census allowed women to be enumerators.
11th 1890 Announced that the frontier region of the U.S. no longer existed. So, it was no longer needed to track westward migration. This census was also notable for the use of the tabulating machine, reducing the time to tabulate the census from 7 years to 2.5.

Sailing Ships And Records

Below is a list of Sailing Ships and the time it took for them to sail from point A to point B. These stats come from an 1889 publication the Statistician and Economist.

SAILING VESSELS.
1851, FLYING CLOUD; American clipper ship; New York to San Francisco; 13,610 miles; 89 days; sailed 374 miles in 1 day.
1852, SworDFISH; American ship; same route; to inside of Farallones; 87 days; to port, 90 days.
1853, FLYING FISH; American ship; same route; 92 days.
1854, FLYING CLOUD; American ship; same route; 89 days and 19 hours.
1860, ANDREw JACKsoN; American clipper ship; same route; 90 days and 12 hours.
1853, FLYING DUTCHMAN: American clipper ship; same route, and return; discharged and loaded, wharf to wharf; 27,220 miles; 6 months and 21 days. San Francisco to the Equator; 2,380 miles; 11 days and 9 hours; rounded Cape Horn; 6,380 miles; 35 days.
1853, CoNTEST; American half-clipper ship; San Francisco to New York; 13,619 miles; 79 days.
1853, TRADE WIND; American clipper ship; same route; 75 days. 1857, FLYING DUTCHMAN; American clipper ship; same route; to off Staten Island; inside of 80 days; but was cast away and did not complete the voyage.
1870, YoUNG AMERICA; American clipper ship; same route; to Light-ship off Sandy Hook; loaded; 13,580 miles; 80 days and 20 hours.
1852, NoTHERN LIGHT; American half-clipper ship; San Francisco to Boston; in ballast; 13,950 miles; 75 days.
1854, RED JACKET, Am. ship; Sandy Hook, N. Y., to Liverpool; 13d. 1h. 25m.
1860, PANAMA; American ship; San Francisco to Liverpool; 13,800 miles; 86d. 17h.
1872, OBERoN; British ship; same route; 96 days.
I873, NoHTH.AMERICAN, American ship; same route; 94 days.
1870, GoLDEN GATE; British iron clipper ship; Liverpool to San Francisco; 13,800 miles; 100 days.
1872, ARCHIBALD FULLER: British bark; same route; 101 days.
1873, YoUNG AMERICA; American ship; same route; sailed 16,000 miles; 99 days.
1861, EQUATOR; Swedish ship; London to San Francisco; 14,200 miles; 113 days.
1871, ALLAHABAD; British ship; San Francisco to Sidney; 6,000 miles; 39 days.
1875, GLORY OF THE SEAs; American ship: same route; 38 days.
1862, FLYING DRAGON; American ship; New Castle to San Francisco; 45 days
1871, SwALLow; American ship; San Francisco to New Castle; 39 days.
1854, SIERRA NEvADA; American schooner, Hong Kong to San Francisco; 6,090 miles; 34 days.
1856. BLACK WARRIOR; American Ship; same route; 36 days.
1867, WiscATA; British ship; Yokohama to San Francisco; 4,750 miles; to S. F. bar, 21 days; to port, 23 days.
1884, JAMEs STAFFoRD; American Bark; same route; 1,116 tons; 21d. 12h., arrive Jan. 2d, 1885.
1854, CoMET; American clipper ship; Liverpool to Hong Kong: 13,040 miles; 84d.
1855 EUTERPE; American half-clipper ship; New York to Calcutta; 12,500 miles; 78d.
1861, CoMET; American bark; Honolulu to San Francisco; 2,080 miles; 10d. 20h.
1874, CANADA; American ship; San Francisco to Callao; 5,000 miles; 33d.
1874, NAUTILUs, American brig, Tahiti to San Francisco; 4,200; 23d.
1886, GLENAvoN; English Tea ship; Hong Kong to New York; 13,000 miles, 53 days; sailed May 28th,; arrived July 19th, 1886.
1855, MARY WHITRIDGE: American clipper ship; Baltimore to Liverpool; 3,400 miles; 13 days and 7 hours. 1859, DREADNouGHT; American clipper ship; Sandy Hook to Liverpool, 3,000 miles; 13 days and 8 hours. 1867, THORNTON; American full-ship; same route; 13 days and 9 hours.
1860, DREADNoughT; Sandy Hook to off Queenstown; 2,760 miles; 9 days and 17 hours.
1865, DREADNouGHT, Honolulu to New Bedford; 13,470 miles; 82 days.
1866, HENRIETTA; American schooner yacht; Sandy Hook to the Needles; 3,053 miles; 13 days, 21 hours, 55 minutes and 16 seconds.
1869, SAPPHo; American schooner yacht: Light-ship off Sandy Hook to Kinsale Head; 2,754 miles; 12 days, 7 hours and 51 minutes; to Queenstown; 2,857 miles 12 days, 9 hours and 34 minutes.
1869, DAUNTLEss; American schooner yacht; Light-ship off Sandy Hook to Queenstown; 2,770 miles; 12 days, 17 hours, 6 minutes and 12 seconds.
1866, TAEPING, ARIEL and SERICA; British clipper ships; Foo-chou-foo Bar, China to the Downs, England; 13,500 miles; 98 days. The Taeping reached Blackwall in 99 days.
1882, BAccHUs; British ship; Singapore to San Francisco; 7,700 miles; 49% days.

Bridal Attire

Earlier this week I shared some Wedding dresses from the 19th Century on Heroes, Heroines & History. There's a link at the bottom of this post. However, I have a couple other Wedding Attire Tidbits to share with all of you.

1840

1860 Hair Style For Bride

1866 Bridal Head Dress

1867

1870

Bridal Veils & Bodices

Bride & Bridesmaids Toilets

1871 Bridal Veils

1876 Bridal Head Dress

The post I mentioned about was simply wedding gowns. Here's a link Tidbits of 19th Century Wedding Gowns Get them out, if you haven't already.

The Bull's Foot

I came across this game and while I've played something similar when I was a kid, or even with my children, I never knew the game to be called "The Bull's Foot". Below are two variations of the same game. Enjoy!

EVERYBODY knows this game, of which the idea consists in piling up hands, one above another, and then withdrawing successively each one as it becomes the under one, to place it on the top of the pile, saying, meantime, a number from one to nine. When the turn of nine comes, the pile is taken down, and the hands are hidden. It is then the turn of him who has said nine, to skilfully seize a hand, saying, "I hold my Bull's Foot." If he does not catch any, he owes a forfeit. If he succeeds in catching a hand, he says to the person to whom it belongs, "Of three things you must do one." A polite player will reply, "Yes, if I can." Others will add, "If I choose," "If it please me." Then the conqueror orders three things, of which one at least should be feasible. The order is executed, and the game begins again.
(Look for the choice of the forfeits at the end of the games.)
Source: The Book of Parlor Games ©1853

THE BULLS FOOT.
The ancient way of playing at this was very childish. The first player laid one hand upon the table, and her companions imitated her, laying their hands on hers, until a pile of nine were formed. The player whose hand was undermost, then withdrew it, and placed it on the top of the pile, saying, “one.” The next one did the same, counting “two,” and so on until it came to the turn of the ninth player, who attempted to seize one of the hastily-withdrawn hands, exclaiming, when she succeeded in accomplishing her object, “Nine ! The Bull's Foot is mine !” Now, the following addition has been made. The captor of the Bull's Foot wishes to dispose of it, so taking a key or any other small article, to represent it, she goes round the company, saying, “How much will you give me for my Bull's Foot?” Each person addressed has to instantly reply by stating a price, taking care, as she does so, to avoid any number capable of being divided by nine, thus, eighteen, thirty-six, forty-five, &c., are prohibited, as well as the number nine itself joined to another number, such as nineteen, twenty-nine, &c. The first person making a mistake, pays a forfeit, and becomes vendor of the Bull's Foot.
Source: Every Girls Book ©1860