Hot Air Balloons

Hot Air Balloons were invented before the 19th century. In fact the first recorded launch was in 1783. However a lot of history was covered during the 19th century with regard to improvements and air travel. With that in mind, I've selected a tidbit from "The Literary Digest" ©1898. On a completely different note, take note of the lack of punctuation at the end of each paragraph. This publication was produced by Funk & Wagnalls Company in NY.

IMPROVEMENTS IN BALLOONS.

WHILE hosts of inventors are trying to make a flying-machine that will travel through the air without the aid of the ascensional force of a rarefied medium, others are experimenting to see whether the old-fashioned balloon is not susceptible of improvement. Some of the plans proposed for making ascensions cheaper and giving the balloonist better control of his craft are mentioned in an article contributed to the Revue Scitntifique (Paris, September 10) by M. H. de Graffigny. Says this writer:
"The greatest part of the expense of a free ascension is due to the high price of the gas used for inflation, whose density is also quite great. The Paris company charges aeronauts ao centimes a cubic meter [about 4 cents a cubic yard] for gas from its works at La Villette, and this gas has an ascensive force of not more than 700 grams to the meter [i^ pounds to the cubic yard], under the most favorable conditions. It has been*impossible, up to the present time, to get any improvement in these conditions, . . . and the result is that balloon trips are necessarily few

"Some investigators, finding hydrogen too costly, are talking of a return to the old Montgolfier balloon, filled only with rarefied air or with water vapor at high pressure. These methods have the advantage of being very economical, and we even have reason to ask why they were ever abandoned. Information on this subject is not easily to be found, and to form an opinion we have been obliged to question specialists and repeat several experiments to base theory and calculation on reality."

M. Regnault thus finds that the old hot-air balloons were very economical, that they were inflated more rapidly than the gas balloon, and that some of the most remarkable ascensions in the history of ballooning were made with them; but that they were forbidden by police-regulation in 1785 on account of the danger from fire, and that more recent experiments with them have not been successful, altho methods have been devised by several inventors for keeping the air hot within the balloon without running much risk of setting fire to it. After a mathematical calculation, the author concludes that a long trip in a hot-air balloon is impossible unless some method be devised for preventing the enormous loss of heat that at present takes place by radiation from the surface of the envelope. The hot-air balloon costs only about one third as much as the gas-balloon and can be made much lighter, but it offers a larger surface to the wind, and is more susceptible to atmospheric conditions, without speaking of the dpnger of firewhich never can be entirely eliminated. This danger, which always attends the hot-air balloon, has suggested the so-called "thermosphere" of M. Emmanuel Aim6, which is described by its inventor in the following terms:
"The thermosphere is nothing else than a balloon partially filled with gas and heated by steam.

"Suppose an impermeable envelope into which is introduced a quantity of gas whose ascensional force is insufficient to raise the balloon with its contents, even on the supposition of a maximum dilatation under the influence of the most intense solar radiation. In the basket is placed a Serpollet steam-generator, heated by a petroleum burrer, whose flame is enclosed, like that of a miner's lamp, in metal gauze, to avoid all risk of fire.

"The steam is conducted into the interior of the thermosphere by a tube with an automatic valve. It produces a double effect: it dilates the gas by its heat and it increases its volume by becoming itself part of the mixture.

"When the quantity of steam thus introduced is sufficient to saturate the gas it condenses on the interior surface and the water runs back through a tube into the reservoir. . . . Thus, as liquid and vapor alternately, the water passes around a closed cyclecarrying heat to the gas and thus converting into mechanical work the energy set free by the combustion of the petroleum

"To start the balloon, we have only to introduce steam, and to descend, we have only to shut it off. In no case is the aeronaut at the mercy of his gas, as in an ordinary balloon, since the gas alone is unable to lift him without the aid of the steam. It is thus possible to travel at any height between the level of the earth's surface and a superior limit which is about 6,000 feet, and that, too, without losing gas. . . . The equilibrium depends only on the turn of a valve; when the sun is shining the steam is turned off a little; when it goes under a cloud the steam is turned on again

"To sum up, the use of steam to give ascending force and as a regulator of equilibrium enables the aeronaut to rise and descend at his will. He can choose and maintain a given altitude, without other loss than that of his fuel, of which he can obtain a fresh supply by descending to the ground. Provided he keeps over inhabited regions, he may take indefinitely long trips. Finally, he may hope to direct his craft by rising or falling till he finds himself in a favorable air-current."

Of these claims, M. de Graffigny speaks, in closing, as follows:
"We shall say nothing further of this plan, for the near future will show whether its claims are just or unfounded, but our conclusion is that there still remains much to do before we shall obtain the ideal balloon that inventors dream of. Nevertheless, many minds are working on this difficult problem, improvements in detail will be worked out little by little, and we do not doubt that in the next century aerostation will be a mode of locomotion, or at least as popular a sport as automobilism is at present."— Translated Jor The Literary Digest.

St. Valentine's Day

Below is an excerpt from a 1898 publication: School Education Vol.17. This probably isn't something one would think about when picturing Valentine Celebrations during the 19th century but I felt it is kinda fun to see what School teachers were encouraged to do.

ST. VALENTINE'S DAY, FEB. 14
If it seems to interrupt the regular work and you are tempted to overlook it, go back into your own childhood for a minute and think whether it is the "regular" days that you remember, or the days in which something a little out of the ordinary happened. Tell the legend of St. Valentine, and that it is love that makes the tokens valuable. Nobody wishes to send his love with anything that is not pretty, of course, so the question of comic valentines is easily disposed of.
Now we will make some valentines to take home, and mamma shall be the recipient of these favors. Sketch a dainty flower on a small card and have the children color it with colored pencils or with water color. A bird with a letter in his mouth is a pretty design to be perforated or sewed, while a heart sewed in red worsted, or cut from red paper and pasted on a white card, is effective with an appropriate motto. Always choose some simple design. The result will be much more satisfactory when completed than an elaborate affair, for the latter will be only half done, and so soiled that neither' giver nor receiver will find much pleasure in it, except as an expression of love.
Let envelopes be made and the "love tokens" taken home to be put at mamma's plate or to be left at the door with a loud ringing of the door bell.

Broad or Windsor Beans

In 1863 Isabella Mary Beeton published "The Book of Household Management." And in her vegetable section of the recipes, I stumbled across a bean I'd never heard of, the Broad or Windsor Bean. So naturally I had to research what this bean was. Today it is more commonly called the Fava Bean. Victory Seeds has a simple overview of the history of the Fava Beans.

In Ms. Beeton's book her recipe is:

BOILED BROAD OR WINDSOR BEANS.
1092. Ingredients.—To each 1/2 gallon of water, allow 1 heaped tablespoonful of salt; beans.
Mode.—This is a favourite vegetable with many persons, but to be nice, should be young and freshly gathered. After shelling the beans, put them into boiling water, salted in the above proportion, and let them boil rapidly until tender. Drain them well in a colander; dish, nnd serve with them separately a tureen of parsley and butter. Boiled bacon should always accompany this vegetable, but the beans should be cooked separately. It is usually served with the beans laid round, and the parsley and butter in a tureen. Beans also make an excellent garnish to a ham, and when used for this purpose, if very old, should have their skins removed. 
Time.—Very young beans, 15 minutes; when of a moderate size, 20 to 25 minutes, or longer.
Average cost, unshelled, 6d. per peck.
Sufficient.—Allow one peck for 6 or 7 persons.
Seasonable in July and August.
Nutritive Properties of the Bean.—The produce of beans in meal is, like that of peas, more in proportion to the grain than in any of the cereal grasses. A bushel of beans is supposed to yield fourteen pounds more of flour than a bushel of oats; and a bushel of peas eighteen pounds more, or, according to some, twenty pounds. A thousand parts of bean flour were found by Sir H. Davy to yield 570 parts of nutritive matter, of which 420 were mucilage or starch, 103 gluten, and 41 extract, or matter rendered insoluble during the process.

In "The Art of Preserving all kinds of animal and vegetable substances for Several Years" by M. Appert ©1811

Windsor Beans. - (Petiles Jives de marais.)
Neither the feverole (the small dried bean) nor the julienne, which re~ sembles it, are fit to be preserved. I make use of the genuine Windsor, or broad bean, which is of the thickness and breadth of the thumb, when ripe. I gather it very small, about the size of the the end of the little finger, in order to preserve it with its skin. As the skin becomes brown when in contact with the air, I take the precaution of putting the beans in bottles as soon as shelled. When the bottles are full, the beans having been shaken down gently on the stool, and in that way the vacancies in the bottle having been filled up ; I add to each bottle a little bunch of savory ; I cork them quickly in order to give them one hour's boiling in the water-bath. When this vegetable has been quickly gathered, prepared and preserved, it has a white, greenish colour: on the contrary, when the operation has been tardy, it becomes brown and hard.

Peeled Windsor Beans.
(Feves de marais devotees.)
In order to preserve Windsor beans Stripped of their skins, I gather them larger, about half an inch long at the utmost. I take off the skin, bottle them with a small bunch of savory, &c. and I put them in the waterbath, which is made to boil an hour and half.

In the American Gardener's Calendar; adapted to the climates and season of the by Bernard M'Mahon © 1806 you'll find this:

Planting the large Windsor Beans, and other varieties of the same species.
As early in this month as possible, plant a full crop of Windsor beans, and also of any of the other varieties which you esteem ; the Mazagan and Lisbon are the earliest, the white-blossom bean is very delicious, and boils much greener than any other kind ; but the green Genoa, bears the heat of our climates better than either of the others, and therefore is the most suitable for late crops. The long-podded bean is very good, and bears well; but the Windsor, Sandwich, Toker, and broad Spanish kinds, on account of their great size and sweetness, are more esteemed for blanching than any other. The dwarf-cluster bean is a great bearer, never grows above a foot or fourteen inches high, and may be planted in rows either in beds or borders, the rows to be about two feet asunder ; and as this kind branches out considerably from the root, the beans must be planted in single rows, and six inches distant from one another.
I have again to remark, that it is from the early planted of those kinds, that much produce may be expected ; for when overtaken by the summer heat, whilst in blossom, these drop off prematurery; consequently, the crops are poor and scanty.
Continue planting these kinds once every ten days, till the end of this month or beginning of next; and as the early crops advance, draw some earth up to their stems, as directed for peas.
When beans are desired at as early a period as possible, you may force some of the early Mazagan kind, in any of your forcing departments, observing, when the plants are in full blossom, to nip off their tops, which will cause their fruit to set and ripen sooner, than if left to take their natural course.

Or you may, about the beginning of the month, plant a quantity of them close together in a hot-bed, to be defended with a frame and glasses, or with mats, &c. and when thus forwarded for two or three weeks, plant them into the open ground; observing to give them plenty of air whilst in the hot-bed, and when they have one or two inches growth therein, to plant them into some warm border, in rows two feet and a half, or a yard asunder.
For further particulars, and the method of planting all the kinds, see February, page 127.

Which means the Windsor Bean was a part of the American diet for most of the 19th century. It even continued into the 20th til present day. Below is an excerpt from  The Report of Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of California ©1898 I found mention of the Windsor beans.
Mrs. Wenonah Stevens Abbott, Oak, Shasta County— Windsor Beans nearly all germinated. Heavy rains during blooming period probably lessened the amount of bearing, but those which we tried proved very good.

Christmas Watermelon

On a writer's email loop someone mentioned burying watermelon to preserve them. This had me hunting for sources regarding the preserving of watermelon in the 19th century. Unfortunately, I haven't found much but here is an article in Publications, Volume 24 by Georgia Dept. of Agriculture.©1898

CHRISTMAS WATERMELONS.

Under a previous head forcing for early melons was discussed. He who is successful therein is sure of a good price for his product, but it will not compare with the fancy figures which the "Christmas Watermelon" commands. One would think their appearance at this season decidedly out of place—that they would be in about as much demand as overcoats on the fourth of July; but, strange to say, the public buys them—with avidity, too, and at enormous prices. So it seems that late watermelons ought to be an achievement much more worth striving for than early ones, while the cost and labor of their attainment are considerably less.

Mr. David F. Verner, of Gwinnett county, Georgia, is noted for the fine melons which he markets at Christmas, and his process is simplicity itself. That it will prove equally easy to all who try it is by no means to be expected, and there will doubtless be many failures and disappointments if others attempt to imitate his methods. But the fact remains that he does raise (and save) late watermelons, and on the 23d of last December sold them in quantities and at good figures on the streets of Buford.

Mr. Verner is sufficiently unselfish to be willing to share the knowledge of his process with the public, and his methods are consequently given in his own words, as follows:

"The variety of watermelon used by me for late keeping is the Georgia Rattlesnake. The plan which I pursue is as follows: I prepare the ground thoroughly during May— not in the usual way by diggiog holes, but by opening deep furrows with a two-horse plow. I use stable manure in the drill, but not too much ; cover with two furrows and leave till planting time. Rows 12-ft. apart—8-ft. in drill. I leave only one vine to the hill. Plant between 18th and 30th of June; cultivate with sweep run very shallow. Don't let the plow touch vines. Melons matured before vine begins to die around root are the only ones easily preserved.

For preservation place in dry cellar on cotton seed. I still have eight fine melons on hand (January 4th) in perfect condition that I intended laving till spring, but in neglecting cellar in which they were stored in order that meat in same cellar should get cold, they have frozen. I aim to raise melons this summer that I can save till melons come again."

Calling or Visitation 19th Century Etiquette

Below is an excerpt from "Etiquette for Americans" ©1898

CALLING
After introductions, visits—as we commonly term them in this country, "calls"—come next in preliminary sequence. To "make a call" has an inelegant robustness of tone to one not used to hearing it; but Americans cannot plead that they are not used to hearing it. And the expression is not only general, but universal here. "Paying visits," the neat substitute for the rougher phrase, is not yet in colloquial use.

Visiting or calling hours are now limited, and most sensibly, to a restricted time in the afternoon. No one not privileged, on pressing business, or extremely intimate, would think of invading a household before three o'clock. And as it is only of formal visiting we are speaking—"running in" to friends' or neighbors' houses familiarly need not be mentioned in connection with the subject. So great a nuisance did the old-fashioned habit of callers, of spreading themselves thereon whole days, some people calling in the mornings, others in the afternoons, still others evenings, and all on any day in the week, become, that the custom of restricting hours to certain parts of days, and then to certain days of the week, was started in self-preservation; and now, in large cities, is general. No one can be offended who is refused at half-past two on a Tuesday, when "Mondays, three to six," is plainly engraven on a carte de visite. The hostess, on the other hand, who excuses herself within these limits, will find it hard to make her peace with disgusted visitors, who have stretched a point to conform to restrictions made by the offender herself.
It is a good rule to stay only fifteen minutes at a formal, at any rate a first call, unless, of course, urged to stay longer for some special reason. It is an equally good rule to depart as the room becomes crowded and talking grows more difficult, at all events, to relinquish one's place near the hostess. Tea is universally served on calling days in all well-regulated houses; but if you are obliged to go very early, say at three o'clock, it is good form to decline the offer of tea made specially for you, not only because of the TEA TOO EARLY
unseasonable hour, but because it makes a great deal of trouble. This sounds like superfluous advice; but most persons who go out calling much will relate at least one instance of some absent-minded female, who, straying in without regard to the time, accepts the offer of tea at three o'clock, waits till it comes in, and then departs—finding how early it is—without drinking a drop. Of such is the kingdom of callers.

'' Little speeches'' are now ruled out pretty generally in the routine of calling. It is foolish to pretend that "calling" is more than routine; and the more quietly one enters, and the more unobtrusively departs, the better pleased will the hostess be. Above all, don't keep her standing an hour, while you lecture or "orate," or go over somebody's history, while everybody else sits about looking foolish.

Put your card on a convenient place in the hall, or on the tray the servant holds out for you, and mention your name to the manservant, if there is one. A man or a maid usually takes the card on a tray, and stands holding the curtains (perhaps) aside, for yon to enter, speaking your name audibly at the same time. Sending or taking the card in before you to the drawing-room on "afternoons," is obsolete.

A man does exactly the same as a woman, except that he takes off his overcoat, if he wears one, in the hall. His hat and stick he also deposits outside. This rule is not generally observed, but should be. The drawingroom is no place for the hat; and of course the hat and stick go and stay together.

A man in this country must be asked to call, before he may venture to do so. To take away the awkwardness or suspicion of forwardness from such an act, it may be stated that a lady usually knows when a gentleman wishes to call, and if he has been out of his way to be civil to her, she is safe in asking him. He then calls as soon as possible after the invitation is given. After that, if it is a family of much entertaining, he will receive, if his visit has been agreeable, an invitation to dinner. After that, again, he calls within a week, and then he may be summoned for informal occasions, etc. He is an acquaintance.
This rule is not for young girls, whose mothers must do the asking.

Business men cannot pay visits very easily in the afternoons. In these days, however, a man, on an ordinary week day, is allowed to call in a brown, blue or any colored coat, fancy waistcoat, and derby hat. And he can be admitted up to six o'clock. He, therefore, will usually be able to find half an hour out of the week; and there is always Sunday. Few houses are closed to visitors Sunday afternoons. There is really no excuse for men's delinquencies, especially, and above all, if they have accepted invitations or favors of any sort from ladies.

In dealing with the subject of visiting in general, the receiving party is always a woman, of course. Men receive visits from men at their club, or their offices, and in England, and now possibly in New York, there is a distinct etiquette for these ceremonies. And in that respect, of amenities between men, we should do well to learn from our British cousins. The slapdash and freedom of many men's friendly calls in business offices is disgusting and without palliation. No decent man has a right to see a stranger in his shirtsleeves, with his hat on, and his feet on the table. In England a man would no more keep his hat on in another man's office than in his wife's drawing-room; and it would be well if that one formality were observed and enforced here.

But as for formal visiting among men, it is never done at their houses, if they are married. That is to say, it is always the wife who receives, not the husband. He goes out, if he has any sense, and makes calls himself. For we have borrowed another sensible custorn from England; and that is that when a gentleman, no matter if he is married, has received hospitality at a lady's hands, he is quite capable of paying a visit to show his personal appreciation. It is not necessary for a man to relegate all the visiting to his wife.

The imposing and important question of its being necessary to call (and thus return your own visit!) after a five o'clock tea, or at home, is not mooted in communities where there is any knowledge of society modes. But as in some small towns, and some large cities, of provincial experience only, the point is everlastingly being raised, it may as well be said once, and for all, that it is an utter absurdity to feel obliged to make one call after another. The rash person who issues eight hundred invitations to a tea, has eight hundred calls to return; and if she does not know this simple fact she has been more than rash, she has been ignorant. An exception may be made, as it always is made in any case, for that matter, in favor of old or delicate ladies, who cannot return eight hundred calls; and sometimes, when the hostess makes a special occasion of a tea, and has a set programme of music. But even then calling again is a gratuitous civility, and by no means expected.
You announce that you will be at home between certain hours; your friends, in walking costume, wait upon you. In the words of a slang phrase, it is "up to you;" and yours is the next move.

Nothing excuses delay in returning a first visit within a few days but going out of town, or illness. Nothing can be taken in place of a call after a dinner, a luncheon, a supper, or theaterparty, unless, as said before, you are ill or out of town. A card may be sent with a word of regret, and nothing is as easy, really, as attention of this kind, which invariably pleases the recipient Club life and bicycling, and many other informal matters, have modified the obligation of persons who meet constantly; but it is always better to overdo the polite than to underdo it; and a call after each and every act of civility is a neat courtesy for a woman to pay, and indispensable for a man.

Oil Discovery

Here is a brief outline sketch of the oil history in the 19th century.

1846 Kerosene as fuel was introduced by Canadian Abraham Gesner
1853 a Russian sea captain noted the oil along the shoreline of Cook Inlet, Alaska.
1854 the North American Gas Light Company was formed.
1859 NW Pennsylvania an important well is drilled for the soul purpose of finding oil.
1862 first commercial oil well in Canon City, Colorado.
1865 first oil pipeline was constructed.
1865 California's first productive well was drilled.
1866 First well in Texas drilled by Lyne T. Barret. wasn't exploited until 1888 when a crew of drillers from the PA came to lend a hand.
1872 Robert Augustus patents Vaseline from the unwanted goop of the PA wells.
1892 First well strike in Southern California was drilled by Edward L. Doheny indowntown LA
1896 some marginally successful wells were drilled in Corsicana, Texas.
1897 500 wells in LA, California
1897 oil discovered in Oklahoma
1898 Oil drilling begins in Alaska

History of the Gatlin Gun Detachment at Santiago

Below is the Preface of a book about the use of the Gatling Gun Detachment written the Teddy Roosevelt. The book is the story about an event in history of July 1, 1898. It's an account of the use of the Gatling Gun Detachment at Santiago, how the unit prepared, their travel from Florida to Calf. and how the battle was fought once they arrived there. You might want to check out the book at Google Books, it has pictures as well as a detailed account of the training and pictures taken in 1898. Enjoy!

History of the Gatling Gun Detachment Fifth Army Corps at Santiago, With a Few Unvarnished Truths Concerning that Expedition by John H. Parker, 1st Lieunt. 13th Inf. ©1898


Preface

On the morning of July 1st, the dismounted cavalry, including my regiment, stormed Kettle Hill, driving the Spaniards from their trenches. After taking the crest, I made the men under me turn and begin volley-firing at the San Juan Blockhouse and intrenchments against which Hawkins' and Kent's Infantry were advancing. While thus firing, there suddenly smote on our ears a peculiar drumming sound. One or two of the men cried out, "The Spanish machine guns!" but, after listening a moment, I leaped to my feet and called, "It's the Gatlings, men! It's our Gatlings!" Immediately the troopers began to cheer lustily, for the sound was most inspiring. Whenever the drumming stopped, it was only to open again a little nearer the front. Our artillery, using black powder, had not been able to stand within range of the Spanish rifles, but it was perfectly evident that the Gatlings were troubled by no such consideration, for they were advancing all the while.

Soon the infantry took San Juan Hill, and, after one false start, we in turn rushed the next line of block-houses and intrenchments, and then swung to the left and took the chain of hills immediately fronting Santiago. Here I found myself on the extreme front, in command of the fragments of all six regiments of the cavalry division. I received orders to halt where I was, but to hold the hill at all hazards. The Spaniards were heavily reinforced and they opened a tremendous fire upon us from their batteries and trenches. We laid down just behind the gentle crest of the hill, firing as we got the chance, but, for the most part, taking the fire without responding. As the afternoon wore on, however, the Spaniards became bolder, and made an attack upon the position. They did not push it home, but they did advance, their firing being redoubled. We at once ran forward to the crest and opened on them, and, as we did so, the unmistakable drumming of the Gatlings opened abreast of us, to our right, and the men cheered again. As soon as the attack was definitely repulsed, I strolled over to find out about the Gatlings, and there I found Lieut. Parker with two of his guns right on our left, abreast of our men, who at that time were closer to the Spaniards than any others.

From thence on, Parker's Gatlings were our inseparable companions throughout the siege. They were right up at the front. When we dug our trenches, he took off the wheels of his guns and put them in the trenches. His men and ours slept in the same bomb-proofs and shared with one another whenever either side got a supply of beans or coffee and sugar. At no hour of the day or night was Parker anywhere but where we wished him to be, in the event of an attack. If a troop of my regiment was sent off to guard some road or some break in the lines, we were almost certain to get Parker to send a Gatling along, and, whether the change was made by day or by night, the Gatling went. Sometimes we took the initiative and started to quell the fire of the Spanish trenches; sometimes they opened upon us; but, at whatever hour of the twenty-four the fighting began, the drumming of the Gatlings was soon heard through the cracking of our own carbines.

I have had too little experience to make my judgment final; but certainly, if I were to command either a regiment or a brigade, whether of cavalry or infantry, I would try to get a Gatling battery—under a good man—with me. I feel sure that the greatest possible assistance would be rendered, under almost all circumstances, by such a Gatling battery, if well handled; for I believe that it could be pushed fairly to the front of the firing-line. At any rate, this is the way that Lieut. Parker used his battery when he went into action at San Juan, and when he kept it in the trenches beside the Rough Riders before Santiago.

Theodore Roosevelt.

Tin Toys

Here are a couple Tin toys I've found that were produced during the 19th Century. I'm certain there were many, many more but these are the only two illustrations I could find.

The first is called "Artist" the six foot figure would draw an elephant, face, dog and court jester on a small piece of paper and small pencil. 1898

Horse & Buggy was actually made before the 19th Century.

Various Types of Hay

Naturally, where your story is set has a bearing on which kind of hay you would us but here's a short list of some of the types.

Clover hay has a higher feeding value ton for ton than meadow hay or corn-fodder. It is so much superior that I must be pardoned for illustrating it from Stewart's tables.
Source: The Breeder's Gazette ©1895
(I didn't include the table for this tidbit.)

Timothy hay is almost universally considered as the best of the long foods for horses. yet many hays from mixed grasses are used. and is some sections alfalfa hay. In recent years in some sections cut and shredded corn fodder has become very popular. and for many years corn blades have been preferred. in the South. by the keepers of race horses.

I prefer Orchard grass hay to timothy hay as it has more blades, timothy dies out in the course of a few years, while an Orchard grass sod will continue to get better each year for many years. One acre of Orchard grass will afford as much pasture as two of clover and timothy. I believe timothy to be an impoverisher of the land, while Orchard grass forms such an immense sod that for plowing under it is equal to a clover one.
Source Henderson's Handbook ©18 quote came from a man in VA.

Alfalfa hay is preferable to either clover or timothy for farm animals, and especially for swine, one acre being worth three of clover for hogs. It is also good for horses, and for oatile it is worth three times as much as red clover.
Source: Report of Kansas State Board of Agriculture ©1893

Oat Hay The results of the experiments indicate that the nutrients of oat hay are in the most digestible form when the heads are in milk. If cut in bloom there is a less yield of poorer composition and digestibility than when cut in milk. If the cutting is delayed till the oats are in the dough stage, the slightly larger yield is more than offset by the poor quality and lessened digestibility of the hay.
Source: Annual Report of Maine ©1898

Below is a list without descriptions of various hays:
Meadow Fescue Hay
Mountain Rye Grass Hay
Canary Reed Grass Hay
Salt Grass Hay
Lupine
White Lupine
Wild Oats Hay
Wheat Hay
Red Top Hay

Drying Beef

Today we can purchase Beef Jerky at just about any store but when 19th Century folks spoke about dried beef, it wasn't what we think of with regard to beef jerky. In fact, you can still find 'dried beef' in some stores today. Below are some recipes from various sources with regard to drying beef. However, "Jerky" as we know it today was referred to as "Jerked Beef or Jerked Meat."

Jerked Meat. — What most persons imagine to be the significance of jerked in the compound "jerked beef" it would be hard to say. The word is not derived from the verb to jerk, but from the Peruvian charki, as is shown by the following citation from Prescott's " Conquest of Peru": "Flesh cut into thin slices was distributed among the people, who converted it into charki, the dried meat of the country."
Source: The Mistakes we Make ©1898

And I stumbled on this tidbit as well:
"Jerked beef" has been an important article of import into Cuba, and it may become still more so in the future, as Texas, with its millions of cattle, has a climate peculiarly adapted to the preparation of this form of beef product.
Source: Industrial Cuba ©1899

Beef—To Pickke For Winter Or Present Use, And For Drying.—Cut your beef into sizable pieces, sprinkle a little salt upon the bottom of the barrel only, then pack your beef without salt amongst it, and when packed pour over it a brine made by dissolving G lbs. of salt for each 100 lbs. of beef in just sufficient cold water to handsomely cover it.
You will find that you can cut and fry as nice as fresh, for a long time; just right for boiling, also; and when it gets a little too salt for frying, you can freshen it nearly as nicely as pork, for frying purposes, or you can boil of it, then make a stew for breakfast, very nice indeed. By the other plan it soon becomes too salt for eating, and the juices are drawn off by the salt. In three weeks, perhaps a lithe less, such pieces as are designed for drying will be ready to hang up, by soaking over night to remove the salt from the outside. Do not be afraid of this way; for it is very nice for winter and drying purposes; but if any is left until warm weather, throw away this brine, put salt amongst what is left and cover with the first brine, and all is right l'oi long keeping.
Source: Dr. Chase's Recipes ©1866

HUNG BEEF. Take any piece of beef you please, some prefer the navel piece; salt it in precisely the same way as directed for ham above, and keep it in salt for about the same period. Dry it also in the same way. When it is wanted boil it till it is tender. Note.—That some direct blood to be washed over the beef during its drying to make it of a dark colour; but this is surely a useless piece of art. Hung beef will require long soaking and boiling to be eatable: we do not much admire it, more especially if, before being salted, the beef has been hung in a cellar, as some of the books direct, till it becomes “a little sappy.”—Sappy indeed must he be who desires or directs the preparation of such a dish!
Source: Two Thousand Five Hundred Recipes in Family Cookery ©1837

DRIED BEEF.
Buy the best of beef, or that part which will be the most lean and tender. The tender part of the round is a very good piece. For every twenty pounds of beef use one pint of salt, one teaspoonful of saltpetre, and a quarter of a pound of brown sugar. Mix them well together, and rub the beef well with one-third of the mixture for three successive days. Let it lie in the liquor it makes for six days, then hang up to dry.
A large crock or jar is a good vessel to prepare the meat in before drying it.
Source: White House Cook Book ©1889

Proper care of farmlands in the event of black rot on Cabbages

These are some interesting tidbits that could cause your characters a bit of frustration and hardship should their cabbage develop this black rot.

SYNOPSIS OF RULES FOR PREVENTION.
The field observations described above, taken in connection with the characters of the disease as previously worked out, lead the writer to believe that this trouble may be successfully combated by means of what he has frequently designated as field hygiene. If he were asked to give in concise terms a few rules for avoiding this disease they would be about as follows:
1. Plant the cabbage seed on land where this disease has never appeared. When the plants are ready to set out inspect the seed bed very carefully, and if any cases of the disease are found reject all the plants and set from some other bed. One can not afford to run any risk of infecting his land by the use of seedlings from suspicious beds. It would be better to plant some other crop than to take this risk. A good practice is to strew the land to be used for seed bed with straw or dry brush and burn it over before plowing. The seed bed should be made in a different place each year.
2. Set the plants on land which has not been in cabbages or other cruciferous plants for some time. If it is impossible to avoid following cabbages by cabbages, at least take the precaution to plant only on land which has never suffered from this disease. To follow any other course is simply to invite the trouble. The practice of planting cabbages after cabbages for a long series of years also invites other parasites, and must as a rule be considered very bad economy.
3. As a matter of precaution avoid the use of stable manures, since these may possibly serve as a means of carrying the disease into uninfected fields, that is, through cabbage refuse fed to animals or thrown into the barnyard or onto manure piles. As far as possible make use of commercial fertilizers in place of barnyard manures, both in the seed bed and in the field, at least until it shall have been shown conclusively that there is no danger in the manure pile. Too much stress can not be laid on the necessity of keeping the germs out of the soil, and consequently on the avoidance of practices which, if not absolutely proved to be dangerous, are at least questionable.
4. Do not turn animals into diseased fields and then allow them to wander over other parts of the farm. Cattle or other stock should not be allowed to roam in cabbage fields where this disease prevails.
5. All farm tools used on infected land should be scoured bright before using on uninfected land. The transfer of soil from infected to healthy fields ought in all cases to be reduced to a minimum.
6. Keep up a constant warfare against insect enemies, especially the cabbage butterfly and the harlequin bug.
7. As a palliative remove badly affected plants from the field as fast as they appear. In early stages of the disease—i. e., while it is still confined to the margins of the leaves and has not yet entered the head or stump—go over the fields systematically about once every ten days and break off and remove all the affected leaves. Do not throw this refuse into cultivated fields, or into ditches from which it can be washed to other fields, or on roadways to be tracked about. It should be burned or put into a deep pit in some fence corner or other out-of-theway place.
8. Weeds which harbor the disease, especially the wild mustards, must be destroyed systematically.
9. Store cabbages from diseased fields only when it is impossible to sell them in the fall, and in such cases take particular care to reject all heads showing any trace of black in the stump and to keep all parts of the houses below 40° F. If any affected heads are stored tliey should be put by themselves in the lowest, coolest part of the house.
Source: The Black Rot of Cabbage ©1898

1898 Ivory Soap Post

Below is a copy of an 1898 Ad for Ivory Soap. I love the claim that "It Floats."

READY FOR BATTLE

An Ivory Soap bath gives a sensation of increased vitality; a longing for activity and for exercise of the faculties; it is a fitting preparation for any battle of life.

Every ingredient of Ivory Soap is sweet, clean and pure. No better materials go into the most expensive toilet soaps, and no soap is so pleasant to use; it has a rich creamy lather that is soothing to the skin as well as cleansing.

IT FLOATS

Christmas Games

Continuing with yesterday's post about Christmas parties here are some game and party suggestions.

TOPSY-TURVY AND CHRISTMAS PARTY

MATERIALS REQUIRED : A miniature Christmas-tree, as many numbered cards in duplicate as there are guests.
Have you ever thought of giving a Topsyturvy party—one where everything is as it ought not to be Here is a programme for one which is a Christmas party as well, and if given in Christmas week is pretty sure to be a success. Every guest is asked to bring a simple Christmas present, appropriate for a lady or gentleman, as is preferred.

PROGRAMME
No. 1. The Unexpected.
No. 2. Little, but oh my!
No. 3. Have a Smile with me?
No. 4. A Freak of Fancy.
No. 5. A Draw Game.
No. 6, 2

“The Unexpected” is supper, a very light one, “Little, but oh my!” is the Christmas tree, the smallest possible tree, hung from the ceiling upside down. There should be a very tall and thin Santa Claus. The presents, neatly done up, each bear a number, and these numbers match others which were drawn by the players before the games began. As the numbers on the packages are called the players who hold the duplicate numbers claim their presents, which are sure to be malapropos, as there is no possibility of anyone getting what was intended for him. The rest of the evening is devoted to several games already described. No. 3 on the programme, “Have a Smile with me?” is “Nonsense Rhyming.” As a prize for the best rhyme that very curious and attractive book, “Topsys and Turvys,” by Peter Newell, seems particularly appropriate. “A Freak of Fancy” is the game called “Teapot.” “A Draw Game” is drawing pigs with the eyes shut; see “Blind Artists.” “?” is the second and bona-fide Supper. And after that, goodmorning, for it will surely be after twelve.

CHILDREN'S PARTY FOR GROWN PEOPLE
An entirely novel and funny plan is to ask fifteen or twenty grown people to a children's party, where they themselves are to be the children. Raids on the nursery can be made for blocks, puzzles, balls, battledore and shuttlecock, and other toys, and these, with such games as “A Spoonful of Fun,” “Hunt the Whistle,” “Teapot,” and “Here we go round the Barberry Bush,” will furnish amusement for the young people if it is the season for in-door games. “The Baby Show” should come just before supper. At Supper bibs are used instead of napkins—those printed with outline pictures and appropriate inscriptions, such as “Our Pet,” “For a Good Girl,” etc., will be particularly appreciated, and they need not be embroidered, but may easily be painted in water-colors. If the party is given in Summer, when out-of-door games are possible, “Hide and Seek,” “Tag,” “Prisoner's Base,” and “Base-ball” are only a few of the delightful and exciting amusements which will “make me a child again just for to-night,” even though the consequences may be “that tired feeling” to-morrow.
Source: The Book of Games ©1898


Mv Dear Myrtle : — My mamma says I may have a Christmas party, and ask the little people in our Sunday School. She is going to treat us on cake and apples. I would like to have some new games to tell them how to pi y. Couldn't you remember some you used to play, and write me about them? If you will, I shall be ever so much obliged. Your little friend, Eva.
Deak Little Eva : — Nothing in the world would delight us so much as to help make your Christmas party pleasant. It isn't so long ago that we played ourselves but that we can remember a good many games.
Here is one we children played at our vestry a couple of years ago Christmas. One ol the Deacons told all who wished to play, to choose some part of the outfit of a team, and when he mentioned the name they had chosen, they must imitate its motions as nearly as possible ; the whips
must thrash their arms, the sleigh bells must say Jingle, the blinders must put their hands up to their eyes, the rob:s must seem to pull something over them, the reins must shake, the horse run around, and so with all the parts chosen.
When all was ready, the Deacon stepped in the center ot the room, and told a story something like this, only longer: "I was going to Boston on business, so I went to the barn to harness my team. I took down the reins " — several little girls began shaking their hands —'' then I put on the blinders," — some other girls put their hands up to their eyes, and walked carefully around,— " I put on the bells,"—Jingle, Jingle, called out a few boys, — " I pulled up the robes,'' — several imitated the motion,— " touched the whip,"—thrash went the arms of half a dozen boys — " to the horses," —away ran the rest of the boys and girls around the room, and all ended in laughter and a good time. But to make this a good game, all must enter heartily into the fun.
Another game which we tried is called Mother Goose. One of the officers of the school gathered the children on one side of the room, and led them in single file, all clapping their hands and singing, '' Hi diddle, diddle, the cat and the fiddle." They stopped and all mewed. Then tbey repeated, "The cow jumped over the moon." The leader ran, and jumped over a cricket in the middle ot the roo.n. Ail followed. Then they marched around the room, singing, "The little dog laughed to see the sport," when they stopped and laughed heartily. They stood still while saying, " And the dish ran away with the spoon." At the last word, all ran, and whomsoever the leader caught had to be leader next time.
When they were tired of playing running games, they all sat down, and one chose an article in the room, and gave its initial while the others guessed what it could be. Whoever guessed right, selected the word the next time.
Here is another game to be played sitting. All who join it, assemble in a circle. The leader gives one of these syllables, "ash, ish, osh,'' to each one. Thus, to the first person, " ash;" the second, " ish ;" third, "osh ;'' fourth " ash," again, and so on through the company. The leader must then stand in the center and count four, slowly. When he pronounces four, all must sound their syllables at once. The effect Is very amusing, sounding like a prolonged sneeze.— N. H. Myrtle.
Source: The Myrtle ©1876

Chestnuts

Chestnuts were far more popular during the 19th century than today. One of the reasons for this is the blight that hit the U.S. during the first half of the 20th Century. However, today we can find chestnuts in the stores during the holidays.

Below are some recipes that your historical characters might have used or eaten during the 19th Century.

Chestnut Stuffing. — Shell one quart of large chestnuts. Pour on boiling water, and remove the inner brown skin. Boil in salted water or stock till soft. Mash fine. Take half for the stuffing, and mix with it one cup of fine cracker crumbs; season with one teaspoonful of salt, one saltspoonful of pepper, and one teaspoonful of chopped parsley. Moisten with one third of a cup of melted butter. Professional cooks sometimes mix a little apple sauce, flavored with wine, lemon, and sugar, with a chestnut stuffing.
Chestnut Sauce. — Remove the fat from the drippingpan; add nearly a pint of hot water; thicken with flour which has been cooked in brown butter; add salt and pepper, and the remainder of the chestnuts.
Source: Mrs. Lincoln's Boston Cook Book ©1891


Italian Chestnut Soup.—(Old Recipe.)—Mince finely two small onions, one carrot, two leeks, and a quarter of a stick of celery. Fry all brown in butter, season with salt, and stew in a quart of stock for one hour. Take three or four dozen chestnuts according to size, peel off the first shell, put them in a chestnutpan, and stir them about till they are sufficiently cooked for the second shell to be removed. Stew them for half an hour in half the prepared liquor. Set apart the whole chestnuts to garnish the soup. Chop the remainder and strain through a sieve with the liquor they have been stewed in. Add the rest of the stock, simmer over a slow fire for six or seven minutes, place the whole chestnuts in the tureen and pour the soup over.
Italian Chestnut Stew.—Mince finely two small onions and a sprig of rosemary, and fry them brown in butter. Add two pounds of meat or chicken or turkey cut into small pieces, half a pint of red Italian wine vinegar (this is often considered more delicate than French vinegar), a pint and a half of stock with three ounces of tomato conserve dissolved in it, and a pinch of salt. Stew over a slow fire for forty minutes. Add three or four dozen chestnuts prepared as for the soup in the last recipe, stew all over a slow fire for an hour and a quarter, adding more stock if necessary. Dish with the meat in the centre, and the chestnuts arranged round it.
Source: Mrs. Roundell's Practical Cookery Book ©1898

Chestnut Croquettes.
Shell and blanch about one and one-half pints chestnuts; boil in one quart of water; add one root celery cut into pieces, one slice onion, one bay leaf; when tender, drain and mash while hot; add one teaspoon onion juice, one teaspoon salt, one tablespoon butter, a little cayenne; mix; form into cylinders; dip in egg and bread crumbs and fry in hot fat. Mrs. Barber.
Source: Cook Book of Tried Recipes ©1897


Chestnut Forcemeat, for Roast Fowl.—Roast and peel a dozen large chestnuts; boil them for about twenty minutes in some strong veal gravy, drain, and, when cold, put them into a mortar, blanch and mince them, with the liver of the fowl, a tea-Bpoonful of grated ham, a tea-spoonful of salt, half a teaspoonful of pepper, a tea-spoonful of chopped onions, a small pinch of grated lemon-rind, three grains of cayenne, two table-spoonfuls of breadcrumbs, a piece of butter the size of a walnut, and the yolks of two eggs. Pound the dry ingredients in a mortar, and moisten them with the butter and eggs. This forcemeat is excellent for a large fowl. Time to prepare, about twenty minutes. Probable cost of chestnuts, 2d. or 3d. per pint. This quantity will serve for one large fowl.
Chestnut Pudding.—Take some chestnuts, and make a little incision in the skin of each one, throw them into boiling water, and let them remain until tender. Remove the shells and skins, dry them in the oven, and afterwards pound them to powdor. Mix half a pound of this powder with six ounces of butter beaten to a cream, two table-spoonfuls of sifted sugar, two or three drops of tho essence of vanilla, a breakfast-cupful of milk, and six wellbeaten eggs. Stir these well together, then pour the mixture into a wcll-buttercd mould, place a piece of buttered writing paper over the top, and steam for an hour and a half, or, if preferred, bako in a good oven. Servo with wine sauce. Probable cost, Is. 3d. Sufficient for four or five persons.
Chestnut Sauce, Brown.—Prepare the chestnuts as in tho following recipe, but instead of adding cream or milk to the paste, mix them with a little good brown gravy, and season the sauce rather highly. Time to roast the chestnuts, according to the quality. Probable cost, 2d. or 3d. per pint. Sufficient for one roast fowl.
Chestnut Sauce, White.—Roast a dozen chestnuts until quite tender, then remove tho brown rind and the skin under it, and put them into a mortar with a tea-spoonful of salt, half a tea-spoonful of pepper, half a tea-spoonful of sifted sugar, and a piece of butter about the sizo of a walnut. Pound these together to a smooth paste, which must be put into a saucepan, and mixed with a breakfast-cupful of milk or cream; stir the liquid till it boils. This sauce is excellent for boiled fowls. Time to roast the chestnuts, varying with the quality. Probable cost, 2d. or 3d. per pint, if made with milk. Sufficient for one fowl.
Chestnut Soup.—Take off the outer rind from fifty chestnuts, and put them into a saucepan of cold water. Place them on the fire, and when the water is just upon the point of boiling, take them out and remove tho under skin. Stew them in sufficient stock to cover them until quite tender; put thorn in a mortar, and pound them to a paste, reserving a dozen to bo placed whole in the soup just before it is dished. Pound with the paste two tablespoonfuls of broad-crumbs, two tea-spoonfuls of salt, half a tea-spoonful of pepper, and half a nutmeg grated. Mix with it very gradually the stock in which the chestnuts were boiled, if its sweetness is not objected to, allowing a quart of the mixture and a pint of milk to every quart of stock. Boil all together onco more, with tho chestnuts which were reserved, and if the soup is too thick, add a little more stock. Before serving, place somo fried sippets in tho tureen. The stock may bo either made from meat or from vegetables alone. Time, two and a half hours. [Sufficient for eight or nino persons. Probable cost, exclusive of the stock, 1 Od. per quart.
Chestnuts, Compdte of.—Take thirty large chestnnts, peel on tho outer brown skin, ana put them into a saucepan of cold water. When tho water is just on the point of boiling, take them off, romovo the second skin, and be careful not to break tho chestnuts. Make a syrup with a breakfast-cupful of water and a quarter of a pound of sugar, adding a glass of shorry and tho rind of half an orange or a lemon cut very thin. Put the chestnuts into this, and let them simmer gentlv for twenty minutes. Strain tho syrup over the chestnuts, and serve hot. Sift a little sugar ovor them. Time, abont forty minutes. Probable cost, chestnuts.
3d. or 4d. per pint. The above quantity will make a moderate-sized dish.
Chestnuts, Pur6e of.—Take fifty large chostnuts—those are the best which have no division, and, when the skin is removed, are entire. Take off the outer brown skin, and boil the chestnuts until the inner skin will come off easily, when it also must be removedHaving done this, put the chestnuts into a saucepan with sufficient white stock to cover them, and boil them gently until they are quite soft, when thoy must be pressed, while hot, through a wire sieve. Tho pulp must then oo put into a stewpan, with a piece of butter about tho size of a walnut, a cupful of cream or new milk, half a cupful of the stock in which they were simmered, and a little salt, pepper, and sugar. Stir this over the fire until quite hot, when it may be placed in the middle of a dish of cutlets. Tunc, two hours. Probable cost of chestnuts, 3d. or 4d. per pint. Sufficient for four or five persons.
Chestnuts, Boasted for Dessert.— Cut a little piece of the outer shell off each chestnut; this is to prevent them bursting when hot. Boil them for about ten minutes; do not allow them to cool, but put them into a tin in the oven, or into a Dutch oven before the fire, and let them remain until they are quite soft. Fold them in a napkin, and servo quite hot. Salt should be eaten with thom. Time to bake, about ten minutes. Probable cost of chestnuts, 3d. or 4d. per pint. Sufficient, one pint for foui or five persons.
Chestnuts, Stewed (to be served as a vegetable).—Remove tho outer rind from sound chestnuts, then fry them in a little butter, when the inner skin may easily be freed from them. Put them into a saucepan with some good stock, and boil them until they are tender but unbroken. Tho chestnuts should be removed from tho gravy as soon as thoy arc cooked, and served in a tureen, with a little white sauce poured over them. Time to boil the chestnuts, ono hour and a half. Probable cost, 3d. or 4d. per pint. Sufficient, one quart for a turcenful.
Source: Cassel's Dictionary of Cookery 1883

Feeding the Cows

Below is a tidbit from "Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow" ©1898

In a herd of fifty cows, the average amount eaten, per cow. will correspond closely with the amount given in the one hundred rations, but individual cows will vary widely from the average. some eating not more than half the amount called for in the ration and others eating and giving returns for twice the amount. We find many Kansas dairymen feeding all cows in a herd alike, the fresh cows, the cows that have been milking six months and those nearly dry getting the same amount of grain. This is a mistake. In most herds cows will be found that, after milking three months, begin to put on fat and slacken in milk yield. As soon as the first signs of this appear, cut down the grain ration. Other cows will be found to keep thin, turning all their feed into milk. Increase the feed of such cows just as long as they will give returns for it. In the same herd we have with profit varied the grain ration for different cows from two to twenty-four pounds. If the dairyman has the conveniences it will pay to vary for each cow the proportion in which the grains are given, which is easily done if the grain mixture is fed from awbox mounted on low wheels. Fill the box with the mixture of grain selected for the ration, select the two grains in your mixture that are "respectively richest and poorest in protein and put them in small boxes on your feed-box. Taking ration No. 38. the feed richest in protein is cottonseed meal, that poorest in protein is Kaflir cornmeal. You come to a cow that is milking well but is beginning to put on flesh; give her only a part of a feed of the general grain mixture and add some cottonseed meal; this will tend to force her to a higher milk yield. The next cow may be a heavy milker that is getting so thin that she is losing vitality; give her only a part of a ration of the general mixture and add a liberal allowance of Kafiir corn meal. This will help her put on flesh enough to keep up strength. The nearer each cow’s wants are met, the greater will be the yield and the more the profits. Feed according to the _vield of milk and the condition of the cow.

This publication also notes various types of feed. Here's a partial list:
Alfalfa
Corn
Ensilage
Corn Fodder
Millet
Orchard Grass
Prairie Hay
Timothy Hay
Red Clover Hay
Sorghum Hay
Linseed Meal
Soybean Meal

The list goes on but have fun with it, try and decide which diet your characters are feeding their cows and if it works well for them or not.

Orange Recipes & a Storage Tidbit

In Florida fruit from the 'orange' families are beginning to ripen. My Chinese Honey tree in my front yard is so heavy with fruit we had to support some of the branches. It's a new tree and very thin and we've been enjoying the fruit as it ripens.

So for today's post I thought I'd share some recipes and a storage tidbit about oranges. First the recipes:

ORANGE COMPOTE.
6 Jaffa or other good and juicy oranges, 1/4 lb. of loaf sugar.
Peel the oranges, divide them into quarters, carefully remove the outside white skin and the pips of each quarter. Put the sugar into a copper pan with about half a pint of water, and boil down to a syrup, remove the scum as it rises. Put in the oranges and boil till tender. Take up and cool, arrange the fruit neatly in a circle on a deep dish (glass or china), pour the syrup round it and serve.

ORANGE JELLY.
1 lemon, 1/2 pint of orange juice, the thin rind of 1 orange, 6 ozs. of loaf sugar, 2 to 21/2 ozs. of gelatine (French leaf), the whites and shells of 2 eggs, a dessertspoonful coriander seeds, a small piece of cinnamon, 1 1/2pint of ivater, 1 glass of sherry wine (if liked).
Peel half the lemon rind as thinly as possible, and put it in a well tinned stewpan, add to it the juice of the lemon, and the remainder of the above named ingredients. Stir constantly with a whisk over the fire until it boils, draw the pan to the side of the fire and keep it there for about ten minutes. Put a chair upside down on the side of a tsible top, place a .fine towel across it, fasten the four ends with string on to the four legs, place a basin underneath, pass some boiling water through it, then pour through it the jelly and let it run into a clean basin. Repeat this two or three times till quite clear. Pour the clarified jelly into moulds and let set in a cool place. To turn out, immerse the mould in tepid water, wipe the mould and immediately turn out into a dish. A few drops of cochineal can be added to the jelly if a pink or reddish tint is desired. Any kind of fruit, oranges, tangerines, apricots, peaches, cherries, &c., may be set in moulds with this jelly, allowing each layer of fruit and jelly to set before another is added.
Source: Practical Cookery Manual ©1898

ORANGE FRITTERs. Peel,and slice(or quarter)three oranges,and lay them in powdered or granulated sugar an hour or more before making the fritters; mix to a smooth batter four teaspoonfuls of flour, a saltspoonful of salt, the yolk of a raw egg, and about a gill of milk. When ready to use the batter, add to it one teaspoonful of oliye-oil, or melted butter, and the white of one egg beaten to a froth; dip the slices of orange into the batter, lift them out flat with a silver fork, and put them into smoking hot fat: fry light brown, lay them for a moment on a napkin or brown paper to a sorb all fat, sprinkle them with powdered sugar, and serve hot. A very delicate and delicious dessert. MRS. HAMILTON QUIN
Source 265 Choice Recipes ©1883

ORANGE BASKETS
Cut as many oranges as guests, leaving half the peel whole for the basket and a strip half a inch wide for the handle. Remove the pulp and juice and use the juice to make the orange jelly. Place the basket in a pan of broken ice to keep upright, fill them with the orange jelly; when ready to serve place a spoonful of whipped cream over the jelly in each basket; serve in a bed of orange leaves. To make the jelly: Six juicy oranges, one lemon, one pound of loaf sugar, half a box of Cox’s Gelatine; dissolve sugar in half a pint of water, pour half a pint of boiling water over gelatine, when dissolved strain it; put the sugar and water on the fire, when it boils add gelatine, juice of oranges and lemon with a little of the peel grated in, let all boil up and strain into the baskets to cool.

ORANGE MARMALADE - Mrs. Smith
Allow pound for pound. Pare half the oranges and cut the rind in pieces, boil in three waters, until tender, and then set aside. Grate the rind of the remaining oranges, take off and throw away the thick, white, inner skin; quarter all the oranges and remove the seeds; chop or cut into small pieces. Drain all thejuice that will conne, over the sugar; heat this, stirring until the sugar is dissolved, adding a little water, unless the oranges are very juicy, boil for five minutes, add the boiled shreds and boil for ten minutes; then add the chopped fruit and grated rind, and boil for twenty minutes. Seal in glass tumblers.

ORANGE MARMALADE - Miss. Allen
One dozen good oranges; cover with cold water and boil for fifteen minutes. Take out, pour off the water, cover again with cold water and boil until a broom straw will readily pierce them; this will take possibly two hours. When soft, remove from the water, cut open, and with a spoon scoop out the inside, taking care to remove every seed. With a sharp knife or scissors, cut into thin strips two-thirds of the skins. rejecting the rest. Add this to the last boiling water; weigh, and to one pound of the mixture add one and one-fourth pounds of sugar. Boil until thick, and put up like jelly.

ORANGE CAKE - Mrs. Marshall
Two cupfuls of sugar, one cupful of butter, one cupful of sweet milk, three cupfuls of flour, yolks of five eggs and whites of two, three teaspoonfuls of baking powder, grated peel and juice of an orange; bake in four layers. Filling—
Whites of three eggs, juice of an orange, fifteen tablespoonfuls of sugar. Beat together, spread between the layers and 1 on the outside of the cake. Pare and divide in small sections two oranges, and put on top of cake.
Source: Santa Rosa Recipes ©1891

Tidbit on Storing Oranges
I ran across this information years ago and posted it: Storing Oranges

Peanut Butter

I apologize for this late post. I had an early morning appointment.

Below you'll find some basic information on Peanuts and Peanut Butter. It appears to me that peanut butter was not common place until the last decade of the 19th Century.

Of the 4,000,000 bushels of peanuts raised annually in this country i.000,000 bushels are used roasted. The remainder of the crop and he peanuts of an inferior grade go to the confectioner and appear in peanut candy and other confections. Therefore at present the peanut, is used among us, is hardly to be considered a food, but, as already -aid, only as a food accessory or luxury. It is quite possible, how?ver, that this highly nutritious and cheap product of our Southern fields may come to be used in more ways than it is at present, and [■specially in combination with other food materials.
Peanut butter.—The roasted peanut ground into an oily meal has somewhat the consistency of butter and is now marketed under the name of peanut butter. Salt is perhaps quite generally added during the process of manufacture. Water is also sometimes added—usually before serving. Peanut butter is used like other butter to spread on bread, for the making of sandwiches, and in the preparation of a number of made dishes. Many persons like its flavor when it is fresh and of good quality, and it seems fair to say that the use of this and other sorts of nut butter is growing. As regards composition, peanut butter, which is essentially the ground roasted peanut, contains more protein and less fat than ordinary butter. Little is known regarding the digestibility of peanut butter, but the fine grinding would naturally seem to be of an advantage. Judged by Jaffa's experiments with a ration containing peanuts, it would be well digested.
Source: The Farmer's Bulletin ©1894

NUT BUTTER.
THE production of nut butter is a very simple process. The peanut and almond are the nuts that are chiefly used for this purpose; but the Brazil-nuts make a very fine butter. All of the nuts can be ground, but as they can not be blanched, they do not make a nice looking butter. The Spanish peanut has proved the most satisfactory for butter making, although some people prefer the Virginia variety. The first essential thing is to have a nut-grinding mill.
PEANUT BUTTER.
The first step is to roast the peanuts to a nice brown, being careful not to over-brown or scorch them, as too much cooking spoils the flavor. They can be roasted in an ordinary oven, but can be better done in a peanut roaster made especially for this purpose. As soon as they are roasted and cool, the skins or bran should be removed by rubbing them in the hands, or what is better, a coarse bag; or take a square piece of cloth and fold the edges together, forming a bag of it. The chaff can then be removed by the use of an ordinary fan, or by pouring from one dish to another where the wind is blowing. The process of removing the skins is called blanching. Next look them over carefully, remove all defective nuts and foreign substances, and they are ready for grinding. If a fine, oily butter is desired, adjust the mill quite closely, and place in the oven to warm. Feed the mill slowly, turn rapidly, and always use freshly roasted nuts; after they have stood a day or two they will not grind well nor make oily butter. If the butter is kept in a cool place in a covered dish, and no moisture allowed to come in contact with it, it will keep several weeks; and if put in sealed jars or cans, will keep indefinitely.
RAW PEANUT BUTTER.
Heat the peanuts just sufficiently to remove the skins, but do not allow them to get brown; prepare them as described in a former recipe, and grind in a nut mill. Although the raw peanut butter is not as palatable as the roasted butter, it is considered more healthful and easier of digestion. It is also preferable to use in making soups and puddings, in cooking grains, and in seasoning vegetables. Food seasoned with this butter does not have that objectionable taste that the roasted peanut butter imparts; and if it is properly used, the peanut taste is almost entirely eliminated.
ALMOND BUTTER.
Almond butter is more difficult to make than peanut butter because the skins can not be so easily removed. Roasting does not loosen the skins of the almond as it does of the peanut. They have to be soaked in boiling water from two to five minutes; then the skins become loose and can be pinched off by pressing on the nut with the thumb and finger; the skin will crack and the kernel pop out. But by this process the nuts have soaked up some water and become tough. They must then be dried in the oven until quite crisp, but the oven must not be hot, or they will brown. Then run them through a loosely adjusted mill or a sausage grinder, and place on a cloth stretched over the stove until perfectlydry; then grind them in the nut-butter mill, quite tightly adjusted. This makes excellent butter if the almonds are first-class, and sweet.
Source: Guide for Nut Cookery ©1899

Peanut Butter Cookies
1 teaspoon salt
1 cup sugar
1 cup brown sugar
1 cup lard
2 cups peanut butter Mix all ingredients adding flour last 2 eggs (well beaten) with soda and water. Drop on cookie
2 teaspoons baking soda sheet with teaspoon, press with fork. dissolved in Bake in 375° oven.
4 tablespoons warm water
3 cups flour added
Miss Blanche Roe
Source: Random Recipes ©1846 (Please note that might not be the actual date of the publication. There is no date on the original source from Google Books but the organization who put out the book was organized in 1846.)

The first patent for peanut butter was issued in the 1840's in Canada. (Lynn's note.)

Peanut Butter.—A new use for peanuts is developing as the peanut butter industry becomes better understood. This product of the peanut answers in the place of ordinary butter for table use, and is said to be excellent for shortening purposes and for gravies, sauces, etc. In point of purity it is superior to the best dairy butter. It is well designed for the use of the vegetarians who strenuously object to anything animal. There is already a demand for this butter substitute and it is very probable there will be an enlarged market for the nuts. At present the product of the United States is about 500,
000 bags annually and that of the world is 600,000,000 pounds.— West Coast Trade.
Source: Journal of Hygiene and Herald of Health ©1898

Tidbits on Worsted Fabrics

Below is an excerpt from an 1898 Textile World on Worsted Fabrics and the costs for the past year. Not only is this interesting in terms of costs but is also gives you a list of the various companies that were selling fabric.

The largest quantity of goods was sold in worsted fabrics, and this will account for the large number of this class.
The general run of colors was somewhat lighter than for a few seasons past. The finest line of worsteds shown was the line made by the Hockanuni Co., one grade being $3.00 less 10 per cent., another $2.871/2 less 10 per cent., and containing some small check patterns with twist, which show the general character of patterns for medlum priced heavy weight worsteds. The same is also true of the $2.75 less 10 per cent. line. In the $2.87% grade, there was a herring-bone stripe pattern, the stripe of different widths, which shows one of the best patterns of this character on the market, and as this is what the trade are demanding, it would be well to obtain samples of the same.
The silk mix fabric, black grounds with different colored silks, was $2.50 less 10 per cent. An unfinished worsted line, blacks $2.12%, blues $2.25. A fine serge, black $1.50, blue $1.62%, also unfinished and finished twills, at the same prices as serge line.
The \Hockanum wool goods are made with twist yarns, $150-$155, and these are the class of fabrics which will be sold during the coming heavy lea-son.
The “Yeovil” worsteds, made by Phillips, contained some very handsome. patterns both in stripes and suitings: they are a hacked fabric, and have the firmness required in a high priced !ight weight, the prices being $2.10 less 5 per cent. and $1.95 less 5 per cent.
The “Oswego” worsteds, made by Chas. Fletcher and sold by 'F. Vietor &. Achelis, through R. Bahcock’s department, were $1.75 and $1.50, both lines being through and through fabrics. This same house had a line of backed worsteds at $1.75, and a cheaper grade, a'll cotton filling, at
$1.30. The “Manchester” eassimeres also sold through them brought $1.25.
Strong, Hewat & Co. ‘had a line of wool cassimeres at $1.25. some of the sultings containing twist.
The "Globe" worsteds were $2.62%, $2.50. $2.37%, $2.25. The fine covert cloths, made by the “Broad Brook" and sold by Ogden & Brook, were $2.00 for both the whip-cord and covert weave, and also a herringbone whip
cord. The worsted lines of this same concern were $1.80 and $1.60, and,contalned some good patterns for stripes. The “Perseverance” worstcds were $1.57l,§, in a line of 'black and'wh‘ltes. The “Centrals,” made by Farwell, were $15714, for the fabric which was woven through and through, and had the suiting patterns, and $1.65 for the backed fabric having the trouserings.
The "Gloria" worsteds are all worsted through and through fabric, sold at $1.30. The patterns were principally nea't checks. The “Fultons,” a line similar to the preceding, was also $1.30, the pattern effects being larger. The “Viking” cassimeres having a Saxony finish were $1.30. Hardvt Von Bernuth & Co. got out an imitation covert at $1.00, which, for a fabric of this class, is the firmest on the market. They also had worsted lines at $2.85 less 5 per cent., $2.70 less 5 per cent., $2.10, $15215 and $1.50.
XV. E. Ti'llotson’s ' “Silver Lake" worsteds, which have the reputation of having the best line of stripes in the market, were $2.25 less 5 per cent. and $2.15 less 5 per cent. The Oregon City Manufacturing Co., which obtains the worsted end of the business from Chas. Fletcher, had lines at $1.20 and $1.671,§. The wool goods were $1.25, $1.50, $15254; and $1.75, many of the styles above $1.50 containing twist. Brigham, Laurie, Mason & Co. had worsted lines at $1.87% and $2.50. Stevens, Sanford &. Handy's worsteds were $1.20, $15715 and $1.65.
“Sawyer’s” worsteds were $1.871/fi, $2.00 and $2.25; the last named grade having some check patterns made with all twist which are very desirable patterns. Oelbermann, Dormmerich & Co. also had a line of worsteds at $1.80 less 5 per cent., some of the patterns being large plaids, but subdued in pattern on account of the combination of color used. Cooley, Turnbull & 00. had a line of worsteds, containing cotton both in warp and filling, which sold at $1.00 less 5 per cent. Dudley, Battelle & Hurd sold a sightly line of worsted stripes at $1.125é, this fabric being backed with a twist. They also had a line at 31.37%.
Converse, Stanton & Co's worstcds were $1.75 less 5 per cent, and $1.85$1.95. A line of whip-cords sold by the same flrm were $2.25 less 5 per cent.
Forstmann & Co., Emerson‘s Department, had a line of worsteds at $1.60. ‘Rockfeilow & Shephard’s worsteds were $1.30 and 8.67%, and in pattern were good copies of the Hockanum patterns of previous season. John & James Dobson had worsted lines at $162341. and silk mix worsted at $1.85, and a fine venetian at $2.00. Ouid & Rigelow had a worsted line at 81.17%. Sullivan, Vail & Co. sold wool goods at 771/5, 85 and 87% cents. and a fine twill in mills at $1.20, and cassimere line at $13715). Curtiss & “"arren, the western manufacturers, had a line of wool goods at 85 cents, W. Stursberg, Schell & Co. had a worsted line at $2.121,é less 5 per cent., and a fine worsted covert at $1.75. Henry “I '1‘. Mali & Co. had line of wool stripes at $1.25, and Duval, Cone & Glover a line of worsteds with plenty of cotton at 95 less 5 per cent. The “Langham” worsteds were $1.25. Kunhardt &. Allen had their usual line of wool goods, the prices being 81.37%. “42%, $1.50 and $152115. The line at the highest price contains some of the finest styles, both as regards pattern and color. They also had the usual knickerbocker twists at $1.00.

1898 Fashions

Today I've included the captions that went with these images from 1898. Typos and commas are the same as original source.

Evening Gown in black satin, arranged with transparent black lace splice over white silk, and trimmed with a full white net flounce patterned with black gauze ribbon. The skirt and bodice bordered with ruches of black net edged with narrow black satin ribbon. Chemisette and sleeves or transparent lace net.

Mantinee in "solar" accordion-pleated pink silk, hem-stitched.

Visiting Costume in dull olive green cloth and dark heliotrope velvet coat arranged with cream guider, a paler shade of green mirror velvet, miniature buttons, and a fine lace cravat.

Geranium cloth skating-gown, strapped with cloth, edged with chenille, and bordered with dark fur: vest and Toque of black antique satin.

Driving-wrap of sealskin and chinchilla, lined with brocade, fastened with antique turquoise clasps: Hat of white felt, bound and trimmed with black antique satin, black plumes and rosettes.

Flannel Dressing-gown with silk revers, trimmed with lace.

Evening Gown in mauve antique satin, arranged with the parent grey chenille fringe, and guider embroidered, and edged with chenille, draped with pale grey mousse line.de.sole, heavily encrusted with a design in steel and amethysts, with velvet shoulder straps.

1898 Fashion commenting on turn of the century from the previous century

That title was a mouthful, sorry. Basically what I found was a publication published in 1898 giving a history of fashions from Paris during the previous century. The first two images are from 1798. The last two are from 1800. The ones in the middle are from 1899. What I find interesting is that the outfits look like the everyday type of outfits worn by folks during the 19th Century. Enjoy!