I've selected four addresses delivered during the first half of the 19th century regarding Independence Day. I find it fascinating to see what was said and thought of by those who were actually living during the time period I'm writing about. Even the choices of the language they use. Anyway, for those of us who are Americans, enjoy our Independence Day.
In 1810 an Oration was given by Dr. George Cumming at the Presbyterian church in East Rutger Street, New York.
In 1822 John Quincy Adams delivered this message in Washington, DC.
In 1833 Rev John Budd Pitkin delivered this address in Richmond, VA.
In 1854 David Ramsey delivered this message in Cincinnati, OH.
Showing posts with label 1833. Show all posts
Showing posts with label 1833. Show all posts
Tuesday, July 4, 2017
Tuesday, May 2, 2017
The House of Seven Gables
The House of Seven Gables written by Nathaniel Hawthorne was published by Ticknor, Reed and Fields, Boston, MA 1851. The original house that Hawthorne used as the backdrop for this story is still standing in Salem, MA. It was a museum I visited once many, many years ago. And of course there was that show called Bewitched that had an episode "shot" there. I do believe they shot the exterior and the rooms were probably Hollywood stages. In either case, the novel dealt in part with the history of the Salem witch trials as well as the change that comes with romance. I bring this novel up, not only because it was written during the 19th century but also the historical aspect of the novel that Hawthorne had researched while he wrote his novel. Admittedly, the history he based a lot of the novel on was the tales passed down for many generations within his own family.
In 1883 a collection of Hawthorne's works were compiled and below is the introductory note giving further insight into the history around the novel.
THE
HOUSE OF THE SEVEN GABLES.
A ROMANCE.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
THE HOUSE OF THE SEVEN GABLES.
In September of the year during the February of which Hawthorne had completed "The Scarlet Letter," he began "The House of the Seven Gables." Meanwhile, he had removed from Salem to Lenox, in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, where he occupied with his family a small red wooden house, still standing at the date of this edition, near the Stockbridge Bowl.
"I sha'n't have the new story ready by November," he explained to his publisher, on the 1st of October, "for I am never good for anything in the literary way till after the first autumnal frost, which has somewhat such an effect on my imagination that it does on the foliage here about me — multiplying and brightening its hueo." But by vigorous application he was able to complete the new work about the middle of the January following.
Since research has disclosed the manner in which the romance is interwoven with incidents from the history of the Hawthorne family, "The House of the Seven Gables" has acquired an interest apart from that by which it first appealed to the public. John Hathorne (as the name was then spelled), the greatgrandfather of Nathaniel Hawthorne, was a magistrate at Salem in the latter part of the seventeenth century, and officiated at the famous trials for witchcraft held there. It is of record that he used peculiar severity towards a certain woman who was among the accused; and the husband of this woman prophesied that God would take revenge upon his wife's persecutors. This circumstance doubtless furnished a hint for that piece of tradition in the book which represents a Pyncheon of a former generation as having persecuted one Maule, who declared that God would give his enemy "blood to drink." It became a conviction with the Hawthorne family that a curse had been pronounced upon its members, which continued in force in the time of the romancer; a conviction perhaps derived from the recorded prophecy of the injured woman's husband, just mentioned; and, here again, we have a correspondence with Maule's malediction in the story. Furthermore, there occurs in the "American Note-Books" (August 27, 1837), a reminiscence of the author's family, to the following effect. Philip English, a character well-known in early Salem annals, was among those who suffered from John Hathorne's magisterial harshness, and he maintained in consequence a lasting feud with the old Puritan official. But at his death English left daughters, one of whom is said to have married the son of Justice John Hathorne, whom English had declared he would never forgive. It is scarcely necessary to point out how clearly this foreshadows the final union of those hereditary foes, the Pyncheons and Maules, through the marriage of Phoebe and Holgrave. The romance, however, describes the Maules as possessing some of the traits known to have been characteristic of the Hawthornes: for example, " so long as any of the race
were to be found, they had been marked out from other men—not strikingly, nor as with a sharp line, but with an effect that was felt rather than spoken of — by an hereditary characteristic of reserve." Thus, while the general suggestion of the Hawthorne line and its fortunes was followed in the romance, the Pyncheons taking the place of the author's family, certain distinguishing marks of the Hawthornes were assigned to the imaginary Maule posterity.
There are one or two other points which indicate Hawthorne's method of basing his compositions, the result in the main of pure invention, on the solid ground of particular facts. Allusion is made, in the first chapter of the "Seven Gables," to a grant of lands in Waldo County, Maine, owned by the Pyncheon family. In the "American Note-Books " there is an entry, dated August 12, 1837, which speaks of the Revolutionary general, Knox, and his land-grant in Waldo County, by virtue of which the owner had hoped to establish an estate on the English plan, with a tenantry to make it profitable for him. An incident of much greater importance in the story is the supposed murder of one of the Pyncheons by his nephew, to whom we are introduced as Clifford Pyncheon. In all probability Hawthorne connected with this, in his mind, the murder of Mr. White, a wealthy gentleman of Salem, killed by a man whom his nephew had hired. This took place a few years after Hawthorne's graduation from college, and was one of the celebrated cases of the day, Daniel Webster taking part prominently in the trial. But it should be observed here that such resemblances as these between sundry elements in the work of Hawthorne's fancy and details of reality are only fragmentary, and are rearranged to suit the author's purposes.
In the same way he has made his description of Hepzibah Pyncheon's seven-gabled mansion conform so nearly to several old dwellings formerly or still extant in Salem, that strenuous efforts have been made to fix upon some one of them as the veritable edifice of the romance. A paragraph in the opening chapter has perhaps assisted this delusion that there must have been a single original House of the Seven Gables, framed by flesh-and-blood carpenters; for it runs thus: —
"Familiar as it stands in the writer's recollection — for it has been an object of curiosity with him from boyhood, both as a specimen of the best and stateliest architecture of a long-past epoch, and as the scene of events more full of interest perhaps than those of a gray feudal castle — familiar as it stands, in its rusty old age, it is therefore only the more difficult to imagine the bright novelty with which it first caught the sunshine."
Hundreds of pilgrims annually visit a house in Salem, belonging to one branch of the Ingersoll family of that place, which is stoutly maintained to have been the model for Hawthorne's visionary dwelling. Others have supposed that the now vanished house of the identical Philip English, whose blood, as we have already noticed, became mingled with that of the Hawthornes, supplied the pattern; and still a third building, known as the Curwen mansion, has been declared the only genuine establishment. Notwithstanding persistent popular belief, the authenticity of all these must positively be denied; although it is possible that isolated reminiscences of all three may have blended with the ideal image in the mind of Hawthorne. He, it will be seen, remarks in the Preface, alluding to himself in the third person, that he trusts not to be condemned for "laying out a street that infringes upon nobody's private rights . . . and building a house of materials long in use for constructing castles in the air.'' More than this, he stated to persons still living that the house of the romance was not copied from any actual edifice, but was simply a general reproduction of a style of architecture belonging to colonial days, examples of which survived into the period of his youth, but have since been radically modified or destroyed. Here, as elsewhere, he exercised the liberty of a creative mind to heighten the probability of his pictures without confining himself to a literal description of something he had seen.
While Hawthorne remained at Lenox, and during the composition of this romance, various other literary personages settled or stayed for a time in the vicinity; among them, Herman Melville, whose intercourse Hawthorne greatly enjoyed, Henry James, Sr., Doctor Holmes, J. T. Headley, James Russell Lowell, Edwin P. Whipple, Frederika Bremer, and J. T. Fields; so that there was no lack of intellectual society in the midst of the beautiful and inspiring mountain scenery of the place. "In the afternoons, nowadays," he records, shortly before beginning the work, "this valley in which I dwell seems like a vast basin filled with golden sunshine as with wine;" and, happy in the companionship of his wife and their three children, he led a simple, refined, idyllic life, despite the restrictions of a scanty and uncertain income. A letter written by Mrs. Hawthorne, at this time, to a member of her family, gives incidentally a glimpse of the scene, which may properly find a place here. She says: "I delight to think that you also can look forth, as I do now, upon a broad valley and a fine amphitheatre of hills, and are about to watch the stately ceremony of the sunset from your piazza. But you have not this lovely lake, nor, I suppose, the delicate purple mist which folds these slumbering mountains in airy veils. Mr. Hawthorne has been lying down in the sunshine, slightly fleckered with the shadows of a tree, and Una and Julian have been making him look like the mighty Pan, by covering his chin and breast with long grassblades, that looked like a verdant and venerable beard." The pleasantness and peace of his surroundings and of his modest home, in Lenox, may be taken into account as harmonizing with the mellow serenity of the romance then produced. Of the work, when it appeared in the early spring of 1851, he wrote to Horatio Bridge these words, now published for the first time: —
"' The House of the Seven Gables,' in my opinion, is better than 'The Scarlet Letter;' but I should not wonder if I had refined upon the principal character a little too much for popular appreciation, nor if the romance of the book should be somewhat at odds with the humble and familiar scenery in which I invest it. But I feel that portions of it are as good as anything I can hope to write, and the publisher speaks encouragingly of its success."
From England, especially, came many warm expressions of praise, — a fact which Mrs. Hawthorne, in a private letter, commented on as the fulfilment of a possibility which Hawthorne, writing in boyhood to his mother, had looked forward to. He had asked her if she would not like him to become an author and have his books read in England.
G. P. L.
In 1883 a collection of Hawthorne's works were compiled and below is the introductory note giving further insight into the history around the novel.
THE
HOUSE OF THE SEVEN GABLES.
A ROMANCE.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
THE HOUSE OF THE SEVEN GABLES.
In September of the year during the February of which Hawthorne had completed "The Scarlet Letter," he began "The House of the Seven Gables." Meanwhile, he had removed from Salem to Lenox, in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, where he occupied with his family a small red wooden house, still standing at the date of this edition, near the Stockbridge Bowl.
"I sha'n't have the new story ready by November," he explained to his publisher, on the 1st of October, "for I am never good for anything in the literary way till after the first autumnal frost, which has somewhat such an effect on my imagination that it does on the foliage here about me — multiplying and brightening its hueo." But by vigorous application he was able to complete the new work about the middle of the January following.
Since research has disclosed the manner in which the romance is interwoven with incidents from the history of the Hawthorne family, "The House of the Seven Gables" has acquired an interest apart from that by which it first appealed to the public. John Hathorne (as the name was then spelled), the greatgrandfather of Nathaniel Hawthorne, was a magistrate at Salem in the latter part of the seventeenth century, and officiated at the famous trials for witchcraft held there. It is of record that he used peculiar severity towards a certain woman who was among the accused; and the husband of this woman prophesied that God would take revenge upon his wife's persecutors. This circumstance doubtless furnished a hint for that piece of tradition in the book which represents a Pyncheon of a former generation as having persecuted one Maule, who declared that God would give his enemy "blood to drink." It became a conviction with the Hawthorne family that a curse had been pronounced upon its members, which continued in force in the time of the romancer; a conviction perhaps derived from the recorded prophecy of the injured woman's husband, just mentioned; and, here again, we have a correspondence with Maule's malediction in the story. Furthermore, there occurs in the "American Note-Books" (August 27, 1837), a reminiscence of the author's family, to the following effect. Philip English, a character well-known in early Salem annals, was among those who suffered from John Hathorne's magisterial harshness, and he maintained in consequence a lasting feud with the old Puritan official. But at his death English left daughters, one of whom is said to have married the son of Justice John Hathorne, whom English had declared he would never forgive. It is scarcely necessary to point out how clearly this foreshadows the final union of those hereditary foes, the Pyncheons and Maules, through the marriage of Phoebe and Holgrave. The romance, however, describes the Maules as possessing some of the traits known to have been characteristic of the Hawthornes: for example, " so long as any of the race
were to be found, they had been marked out from other men—not strikingly, nor as with a sharp line, but with an effect that was felt rather than spoken of — by an hereditary characteristic of reserve." Thus, while the general suggestion of the Hawthorne line and its fortunes was followed in the romance, the Pyncheons taking the place of the author's family, certain distinguishing marks of the Hawthornes were assigned to the imaginary Maule posterity.
There are one or two other points which indicate Hawthorne's method of basing his compositions, the result in the main of pure invention, on the solid ground of particular facts. Allusion is made, in the first chapter of the "Seven Gables," to a grant of lands in Waldo County, Maine, owned by the Pyncheon family. In the "American Note-Books " there is an entry, dated August 12, 1837, which speaks of the Revolutionary general, Knox, and his land-grant in Waldo County, by virtue of which the owner had hoped to establish an estate on the English plan, with a tenantry to make it profitable for him. An incident of much greater importance in the story is the supposed murder of one of the Pyncheons by his nephew, to whom we are introduced as Clifford Pyncheon. In all probability Hawthorne connected with this, in his mind, the murder of Mr. White, a wealthy gentleman of Salem, killed by a man whom his nephew had hired. This took place a few years after Hawthorne's graduation from college, and was one of the celebrated cases of the day, Daniel Webster taking part prominently in the trial. But it should be observed here that such resemblances as these between sundry elements in the work of Hawthorne's fancy and details of reality are only fragmentary, and are rearranged to suit the author's purposes.
In the same way he has made his description of Hepzibah Pyncheon's seven-gabled mansion conform so nearly to several old dwellings formerly or still extant in Salem, that strenuous efforts have been made to fix upon some one of them as the veritable edifice of the romance. A paragraph in the opening chapter has perhaps assisted this delusion that there must have been a single original House of the Seven Gables, framed by flesh-and-blood carpenters; for it runs thus: —
"Familiar as it stands in the writer's recollection — for it has been an object of curiosity with him from boyhood, both as a specimen of the best and stateliest architecture of a long-past epoch, and as the scene of events more full of interest perhaps than those of a gray feudal castle — familiar as it stands, in its rusty old age, it is therefore only the more difficult to imagine the bright novelty with which it first caught the sunshine."
Hundreds of pilgrims annually visit a house in Salem, belonging to one branch of the Ingersoll family of that place, which is stoutly maintained to have been the model for Hawthorne's visionary dwelling. Others have supposed that the now vanished house of the identical Philip English, whose blood, as we have already noticed, became mingled with that of the Hawthornes, supplied the pattern; and still a third building, known as the Curwen mansion, has been declared the only genuine establishment. Notwithstanding persistent popular belief, the authenticity of all these must positively be denied; although it is possible that isolated reminiscences of all three may have blended with the ideal image in the mind of Hawthorne. He, it will be seen, remarks in the Preface, alluding to himself in the third person, that he trusts not to be condemned for "laying out a street that infringes upon nobody's private rights . . . and building a house of materials long in use for constructing castles in the air.'' More than this, he stated to persons still living that the house of the romance was not copied from any actual edifice, but was simply a general reproduction of a style of architecture belonging to colonial days, examples of which survived into the period of his youth, but have since been radically modified or destroyed. Here, as elsewhere, he exercised the liberty of a creative mind to heighten the probability of his pictures without confining himself to a literal description of something he had seen.
While Hawthorne remained at Lenox, and during the composition of this romance, various other literary personages settled or stayed for a time in the vicinity; among them, Herman Melville, whose intercourse Hawthorne greatly enjoyed, Henry James, Sr., Doctor Holmes, J. T. Headley, James Russell Lowell, Edwin P. Whipple, Frederika Bremer, and J. T. Fields; so that there was no lack of intellectual society in the midst of the beautiful and inspiring mountain scenery of the place. "In the afternoons, nowadays," he records, shortly before beginning the work, "this valley in which I dwell seems like a vast basin filled with golden sunshine as with wine;" and, happy in the companionship of his wife and their three children, he led a simple, refined, idyllic life, despite the restrictions of a scanty and uncertain income. A letter written by Mrs. Hawthorne, at this time, to a member of her family, gives incidentally a glimpse of the scene, which may properly find a place here. She says: "I delight to think that you also can look forth, as I do now, upon a broad valley and a fine amphitheatre of hills, and are about to watch the stately ceremony of the sunset from your piazza. But you have not this lovely lake, nor, I suppose, the delicate purple mist which folds these slumbering mountains in airy veils. Mr. Hawthorne has been lying down in the sunshine, slightly fleckered with the shadows of a tree, and Una and Julian have been making him look like the mighty Pan, by covering his chin and breast with long grassblades, that looked like a verdant and venerable beard." The pleasantness and peace of his surroundings and of his modest home, in Lenox, may be taken into account as harmonizing with the mellow serenity of the romance then produced. Of the work, when it appeared in the early spring of 1851, he wrote to Horatio Bridge these words, now published for the first time: —
"' The House of the Seven Gables,' in my opinion, is better than 'The Scarlet Letter;' but I should not wonder if I had refined upon the principal character a little too much for popular appreciation, nor if the romance of the book should be somewhat at odds with the humble and familiar scenery in which I invest it. But I feel that portions of it are as good as anything I can hope to write, and the publisher speaks encouragingly of its success."
From England, especially, came many warm expressions of praise, — a fact which Mrs. Hawthorne, in a private letter, commented on as the fulfilment of a possibility which Hawthorne, writing in boyhood to his mother, had looked forward to. He had asked her if she would not like him to become an author and have his books read in England.
G. P. L.
Wednesday, November 30, 2016
Astronomy from Literary Gazette 1830
Celestial Phenomena from 1830 to 1836
To stimulate recent subscribers to the Literary Gazette to commence with the year the study of astronomy, a brief sketch is subjoined of the aost remarkable phenomena that will occur mm 1830 to 1836, inclusive. Some of these are connected with questions and predictions to the solution and fulfilment of which philosophers are looking forward with considerable interest; more particularly to the return of the three comets, whose periods are supposed to be kaown with some degree of certainty; namely, lbs cnmets of Encke, Biela, and Halley.
1830—Four visible occultations of Aldebarsn, one of which will be attended with singular circumstances connected with terrestrial position—to one part of the British Isles it will prove only an appulse of the star, and to another part an occultation. A total eclipse of the moon, the duration of which will be almost the longest possible, as the centre of the moon will pass very near the centre of the earth's shadow: about the middle of the eclipse the saoon will be in conjunction with a star in Aquarius, which conjunction will, in some places be an occultation. An occultation of Venus by the moon.
1831 An eclipse of the moon. Mars will pass over a star in Taurus. An occultation of Japiter by the moon. Mercury eclipsed by the san. An occultation of Saturn by the moon.
1832—This year will be remarkably replete with interesting phenomena. The comet of Eacke will return in the spring, and the comet «f Biela in the autumn of the year. A transit rf Mercury across the sun's disc. An eclipse rf the sun. An occultation of Saturn by the 2UOB. Three of the satellites of Jupiter sizxltaneou&ly eclipsed.
1833 An eclipse of the sun.
1834 and 1835—The comet of Halley will ae expected; it last passed its perihelion on the -3th of March, 1759: it is calculated to reach iie same point again 16th of March, 1835. A Sanaa t of Mercury across the sun's disc.
1836 A considerable solar eclipse.
end of quote
Note they didn't put in the 1833 Leonoids meteor storm. Coined "The Night It Rained Fire."
To stimulate recent subscribers to the Literary Gazette to commence with the year the study of astronomy, a brief sketch is subjoined of the aost remarkable phenomena that will occur mm 1830 to 1836, inclusive. Some of these are connected with questions and predictions to the solution and fulfilment of which philosophers are looking forward with considerable interest; more particularly to the return of the three comets, whose periods are supposed to be kaown with some degree of certainty; namely, lbs cnmets of Encke, Biela, and Halley.
1830—Four visible occultations of Aldebarsn, one of which will be attended with singular circumstances connected with terrestrial position—to one part of the British Isles it will prove only an appulse of the star, and to another part an occultation. A total eclipse of the moon, the duration of which will be almost the longest possible, as the centre of the moon will pass very near the centre of the earth's shadow: about the middle of the eclipse the saoon will be in conjunction with a star in Aquarius, which conjunction will, in some places be an occultation. An occultation of Venus by the moon.
1831 An eclipse of the moon. Mars will pass over a star in Taurus. An occultation of Japiter by the moon. Mercury eclipsed by the san. An occultation of Saturn by the moon.
1832—This year will be remarkably replete with interesting phenomena. The comet of Eacke will return in the spring, and the comet «f Biela in the autumn of the year. A transit rf Mercury across the sun's disc. An eclipse rf the sun. An occultation of Saturn by the 2UOB. Three of the satellites of Jupiter sizxltaneou&ly eclipsed.
1833 An eclipse of the sun.
1834 and 1835—The comet of Halley will ae expected; it last passed its perihelion on the -3th of March, 1759: it is calculated to reach iie same point again 16th of March, 1835. A Sanaa t of Mercury across the sun's disc.
1836 A considerable solar eclipse.
end of quote
Note they didn't put in the 1833 Leonoids meteor storm. Coined "The Night It Rained Fire."
Monday, November 14, 2016
Politics Whigs
The Whig party was a short lived party of two decades but it was an integral part of the Second Party System for the United States. It operated from 1833-1856. The name was chosen for the American Whigs of 1776 who found for independence. The name was also used because the American Whigs were opposing autocratic rule.
We had four presidents who were Whigs, William Henry Harrison, John Tyler, Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore. Both Harrison and Taylor died in office leaving their VP's to hold the office.
The party fell apart because of anti-slavery faction. Lincoln left the party and ran as a Republican when he ran for president.
We had four presidents who were Whigs, William Henry Harrison, John Tyler, Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore. Both Harrison and Taylor died in office leaving their VP's to hold the office.
The party fell apart because of anti-slavery faction. Lincoln left the party and ran as a Republican when he ran for president.
Thursday, November 10, 2016
Shooting Stars
Below is an article from Harper's Magazine ©1868. The science during the 19th century was developing regarding stars, meteors and shooting stars. I became interested in the science of that century while researching my novel, Raining Fire. The 1833 Lenoids meteor shower was so profound at that time that it was nicked name "The Night it Rained Fire." This article is over 30 years from that event and the information they learned/observed at that point in time is quite interesting, imho.
SHOOTING-STARS, DETONATING.METEORS, AND AEROLITES.
By ELIAS LOOMIS, Professor Yale College.
EVERY one has occasionally seen upon a clear evening a small bright object, in appearance very much like a fixed star, move rapidly across the sky and suddenly disappear, as if a star were shot away from its place in the firmament to a distant region of the heavens. This phenomenon is commonly known by the name of " Shooting-star," or "Falling Star." Occasionally the path of a shooting-star is marked by a luminous stream which continues for an appreciable time after the star has vanished. Shooting-stars may occasionally be seen on every clear night, and at times follow each other so rapidly that it is quite impossible to count them.
Ordinary shooting-stars are not accompanied by any audible sound, although they are sometimes seen to break into pieces. Occasionally meteors of extraordinary brilliancy, like globes of fire, presenting an apparent diameter of considerable magnitude, are succeeded by a loud detonation or explosion, followed by a noise like that of musketry or the discharge of cannon These have been called "Detonating Meteors" or "Bolides."
No solid body has been known to reach the earth's surface which could be traced to an ordinary shooting-star; but occasionally solid substances descend to the earth from beyond the earth's atmosphere. These bodies are called "Aerolites." These three classes of bodies are known by the general term of "Meteors." It is convenient to speak of these classes separately, although it is not supposed that they differ from each other essentially either in their character or their origin.
Shooting-stars are not seen with equal frequency at all hours of the night. They generally increase in numbers from the evening twilight throughout the night until the morning twilight; and when the light of day does not interfere, they are generally most numerous about six o'clock in the morning. From a comparison of a vast number of observations it has been ascertained that the average number of shooting-stars which may be seen by a single observer upon a clear night, in the absence of the moon, about the middle of the evening, is four per hour; about midnight it is six per hour; about two o'clock in the morning it is eight per hour; and about four o'clock it is ten per hour.
In order, however, that an individual maysee so large a number he must observe, not from an open window, much less through a pane of glass, but he must stand in the open air where the view of the sky is entirely unobstructed, and he must devote his exclusive attention to a constant watch of the heavens. Upon a cool night such exposure is far from agreeable, and few persons are willing long to persevere in it.
Professor Newton of Yale College has made extensive investigations to determine the relative number of shooting-stars which may he seen in a given period by different numbers of observers. For this purpose twelve observers were stationed upon the top of a tower from which there was an unobstructed view of the heavens, and they were intended to be so arranged as to divide the sky equally amonj; them. Whenever a meteor was seen, each person perceiving it called out his own name, and a secretary entered the names of the observers upon a record. These observations were continued for several hours. From n comparison of these records it has been concluded that four persons, looking toward difl'erent portions of the heavens so ns to divide the' sky symmetrically among them, will see three times as many meteors as the average number seen by them individually; eight persons will see four times as many as one; and fifteen observers will see five times as many as one. The entire number of meteors which might be seen by a sufficient number of observers is about six times as many as would be seen by a single observer. The reason that four persons will not sec four times as many meteors as one person is that two of them will frequently see the same meteor.
Combining these results with those previously stated we conclude that the nverago number of meteors that traverse the ntmosphcre, and that are large enough to be visible to the naked eye, if the sun, moon, and clouds would permit, is forty-two in an hour, or one thousand daih/.
Shooting-stars are not seen with equal frequency at all seasons of the year. From July to December they are more abundant than during the other six months of the year; and they are ordinarily most abundant in the month of August.
If two observers, at a suitable distance from each other, note the npparent altitude and azimuth of a shooting-star at the commencement of its flight, and do the same also for its termination, they have the data for computing the absolute height of beginning and end above the surface, of the earth. The earliest observations of this kind were made in 171)8 by Benzenberg and Brandes in Germany, and since that time similar observations have been made in mamparts of Europe, us well as in the United States. Such observations were made nt New Haven, Hartford, Williamstown, Wolcottville, Albany, etc., on the night of August 10-11, 18(53; at Washington and Philadelphia on the night of November 13-14, 1868; and again on the 13-Hth of November, 1807, such observations were made at Washington, Richmond, NewHaven, and several other places. It has been ascertained that when the base line employed is only three or four miles in length a shooting
star is seen in nearly the same direction at both stations, showing that its altitude is much greater than the length of that base. When the base line is 30 or 40 miles, the average difference of the directions of the star at the two stations is about fifteen degrees. The base line should not be less than 40 or .10 miles in length, and one of 75 or 100 miles would not be too great. Observers at distances of over 150 miles from each other see for the most part different shooting-stars.
The heights of over 500 meteor paths have been computed, and we thus learn that shooting-stars begin to be visible* at elevations of from 40 to 120 miles, and perhaps sometimes 150 miles, or an average height of 74 English statute miles. They disappear at elevations of from 30 to 80 miles, and perhaps sometimes 100 miles or more, giving an average height at disappearance of 52 English statute miles.
The length of the visible path of shootingstars varies from 40 to 100 miles, though in a few cases they have been found to be even 300 nnd 400 miles long—the average length being 28 miles. The time of describing the visible path varies from less than one second to five seconds, and in some rare cases amounts to ten seconds; but their average duration is less than one second. The average duration of meteors whose brightness exceeds that of stars of the first magnitude is estimated at one and a half seconds. Their velocity relative to the earth's surface varies from 10 to 45 miles per second, and the average velocity of the blighter class of shooting-stars amounts to about 30 miles per second.
Shooting-stars are seen to move in all directions through the heavens. Their apparent paths are, however, general!} inclined downward, though sometimes they move upward; and after midnight they come in the greatest numbers from that quarter of the heavens toward which the earth is moving in its annual course around the siin.
The magnitude of shooting-stars is very variable. Some of them have been computed to have a diameter of 100 or 200 feet, and others 1000 up to 5000 or 0000 feet. We must, however, regard this as the diameter of the blaze of light which surrounds the meteor, while the meteor itself before it takes fire may have a diameter of only a few feet, or perhaps only a fraction of an inch. The apparent size of meteors is greatly magnified by irradiation.
l'rofessor Darkness has undertaken an elaborate investigation to estimate the qnantity of matter in shooting-stars by means of the light evolved during their-passage through the atmosphere, and he concludes that the mass of ordinary shooting-stars does not differ greatly from one grain ; that is,_/b«r hundred awl eighty ofthem would weigh ou/y one ounce at the surface of the earth.
Occasionally shooting-stars appear in great splendor, flashing with a brightness nearly equal to that of the full moon, and leaving behind them a train of dazzling light, which lasts for several seconds, and even for whole minutes. Their color is usually white, with a reddish tinge; but occasionally they exhibit a green light, and sometimes a mixture of green and blue or purple. Even quite faint shootingstars Bometimesjeave trains. Fig. 1 represents a remarkable meteor seen in June, 1866.
The path of shooting-stars is frequently curved; sometimes the path consists of two portions inclined to each other at a considerable angle; and at last the meteor sometimes hursts like a rocket into numerous fragments. In such cases the place of explosion is usually indicated by a smoky cloud, which sometimes continues visible for ten minutes. Fig. 2 represents a meteor seen in 1850, which was followed by a long train of light, and which exploded emitting a large number of scintillating radiations.
Observers frequently imagine that they hear a whizzing noise accompanying the passage of a brilliant meteor. It may be easily proved that such impressions are an illusion. When we compute the path of the meteor from which the sound was supposed to proceed, we always find that it was quite distant from the observer, frequently 40 or 50 miles, and sometimes 100 miles. Now sound is known to move with a velocity of 1120 feet per second, or 50 miles in about four minutes. If, then, any noise was caused by the motion of the meteor, the sound could not possibly be heard until a considerable time after the meteor disappeared, viz., two, five, or even ten minutes, according to its distance.
The light of shooting-stars is probably due to the high temperature resulting from the resistance of the atmosphere to the rapid motion of the meteor. Since at the ordinary elevation of shooting-stars the air is exceedingly rare, some have supposed that the resistance would not develop sufficient heat to give meteors their brilliant appearance. The researches of modern philosophers have enabled us to compute the quantity of heat that may be developed by the stoppage of a meteor in the atmosphere. A portion of the living force of the body is expended in setting the air in motion, and a portion in heating the meteor and the air. This living force, and the consequent heat that maybe developed, is proportioned to the mass of the body and to the square of its velocity. The arresting the motion of an iron meteor whose velocity is thirty miles per second would, if the whole living force were changed into heat, be sufficient to raise the temperature of the meteoric body more than four million degrees of Fahrenheit's scale. If even the larger part of this force was expended in giving motion to the air, there would remain enough to furnish a brilliant light and to melt the exterior portion of the meteor, or entirely to disintegrate it. Aerolites, such as will be hereafter described, always present a peculiar appearance upon the exterior, an if the outer crust had suffered partial fusion, and many of them when first discovered have still been quite hot.
The mean distance of shooting-stars from the observer is found to be about 105 miles, and the average height above the earth of the middle points of their paths is 63 miles. Hence the mean horizontal distance of the paths may be regarded as about 90 miles. It is estimated that the number of shooting-stars actually falling within a circle of 90 miles radius is somewhat greater^han the number seen at one place. The area of this circle is contained nearly 8000 times in the entire surface of the globe; whence we conclude that the number of shooting-stars over the whole earth is more than eight thousand times the number visible at one place.
The average daily number of shooting-stars visible to the naked eye at one place has already been stated at 1000. Hence the average number of meteors that traverse the atmosphere daily, and that are large enough to be visible to the naked eye, if the sun, moon, and clouds would permit, must be more than a thousand times eight thousand, or more than eight millions.
The observations of two European astronomers indicate that the number of meteors visible with, a telescope of four inches aperture is about forty times the number visible to the naked eye. A further increase of optical power would doubtless reveal a still larger number of these small bodies. Hence we must conclude that the source from which these meteors come is of immense extent, otherwise it would long since have been exhausted.
The quantity of matter in these bodies is, however, so small, and their distance from each other so great, that they exert no appreciable influence upon the motion of the planets. It is computed that the average distance from each other of shooting-stars, such as under favorable circumstances would be visible to the naked eye, is about three hundred miles.
Having determined the velocity and direction of a meteor's path with reference to the earth, and knowing also the direction and velocity of the earth's motion about the sun, we can compute the direction and velocity of the meteor's motion with reference to the sun. This computation has been made for several different meteors, and has shown that these bodies, before they approached the earth, were revolving about the sun in ellipses of considerable eccentricity. In some instnnces the velocity has been found to be so great as to indicate that the path differed little from a parabola.
It is thus demonstrated that ordinary shooting-stars are small meteoric bodies, moving through space in paths*similar to the comets: and it is probable that they do not differ miiterially from the comets except in their dimensions, and perhaps also in their density.
SHOOTING-STARS, DETONATING.METEORS, AND AEROLITES.
By ELIAS LOOMIS, Professor Yale College.
EVERY one has occasionally seen upon a clear evening a small bright object, in appearance very much like a fixed star, move rapidly across the sky and suddenly disappear, as if a star were shot away from its place in the firmament to a distant region of the heavens. This phenomenon is commonly known by the name of " Shooting-star," or "Falling Star." Occasionally the path of a shooting-star is marked by a luminous stream which continues for an appreciable time after the star has vanished. Shooting-stars may occasionally be seen on every clear night, and at times follow each other so rapidly that it is quite impossible to count them.
Ordinary shooting-stars are not accompanied by any audible sound, although they are sometimes seen to break into pieces. Occasionally meteors of extraordinary brilliancy, like globes of fire, presenting an apparent diameter of considerable magnitude, are succeeded by a loud detonation or explosion, followed by a noise like that of musketry or the discharge of cannon These have been called "Detonating Meteors" or "Bolides."
No solid body has been known to reach the earth's surface which could be traced to an ordinary shooting-star; but occasionally solid substances descend to the earth from beyond the earth's atmosphere. These bodies are called "Aerolites." These three classes of bodies are known by the general term of "Meteors." It is convenient to speak of these classes separately, although it is not supposed that they differ from each other essentially either in their character or their origin.
Shooting-stars are not seen with equal frequency at all hours of the night. They generally increase in numbers from the evening twilight throughout the night until the morning twilight; and when the light of day does not interfere, they are generally most numerous about six o'clock in the morning. From a comparison of a vast number of observations it has been ascertained that the average number of shooting-stars which may be seen by a single observer upon a clear night, in the absence of the moon, about the middle of the evening, is four per hour; about midnight it is six per hour; about two o'clock in the morning it is eight per hour; and about four o'clock it is ten per hour.
In order, however, that an individual maysee so large a number he must observe, not from an open window, much less through a pane of glass, but he must stand in the open air where the view of the sky is entirely unobstructed, and he must devote his exclusive attention to a constant watch of the heavens. Upon a cool night such exposure is far from agreeable, and few persons are willing long to persevere in it.
Professor Newton of Yale College has made extensive investigations to determine the relative number of shooting-stars which may he seen in a given period by different numbers of observers. For this purpose twelve observers were stationed upon the top of a tower from which there was an unobstructed view of the heavens, and they were intended to be so arranged as to divide the sky equally amonj; them. Whenever a meteor was seen, each person perceiving it called out his own name, and a secretary entered the names of the observers upon a record. These observations were continued for several hours. From n comparison of these records it has been concluded that four persons, looking toward difl'erent portions of the heavens so ns to divide the' sky symmetrically among them, will see three times as many meteors as the average number seen by them individually; eight persons will see four times as many as one; and fifteen observers will see five times as many as one. The entire number of meteors which might be seen by a sufficient number of observers is about six times as many as would be seen by a single observer. The reason that four persons will not sec four times as many meteors as one person is that two of them will frequently see the same meteor.
Combining these results with those previously stated we conclude that the nverago number of meteors that traverse the ntmosphcre, and that are large enough to be visible to the naked eye, if the sun, moon, and clouds would permit, is forty-two in an hour, or one thousand daih/.
Shooting-stars are not seen with equal frequency at all seasons of the year. From July to December they are more abundant than during the other six months of the year; and they are ordinarily most abundant in the month of August.
If two observers, at a suitable distance from each other, note the npparent altitude and azimuth of a shooting-star at the commencement of its flight, and do the same also for its termination, they have the data for computing the absolute height of beginning and end above the surface, of the earth. The earliest observations of this kind were made in 171)8 by Benzenberg and Brandes in Germany, and since that time similar observations have been made in mamparts of Europe, us well as in the United States. Such observations were made nt New Haven, Hartford, Williamstown, Wolcottville, Albany, etc., on the night of August 10-11, 18(53; at Washington and Philadelphia on the night of November 13-14, 1868; and again on the 13-Hth of November, 1807, such observations were made at Washington, Richmond, NewHaven, and several other places. It has been ascertained that when the base line employed is only three or four miles in length a shooting
star is seen in nearly the same direction at both stations, showing that its altitude is much greater than the length of that base. When the base line is 30 or 40 miles, the average difference of the directions of the star at the two stations is about fifteen degrees. The base line should not be less than 40 or .10 miles in length, and one of 75 or 100 miles would not be too great. Observers at distances of over 150 miles from each other see for the most part different shooting-stars.
The heights of over 500 meteor paths have been computed, and we thus learn that shooting-stars begin to be visible* at elevations of from 40 to 120 miles, and perhaps sometimes 150 miles, or an average height of 74 English statute miles. They disappear at elevations of from 30 to 80 miles, and perhaps sometimes 100 miles or more, giving an average height at disappearance of 52 English statute miles.
The length of the visible path of shootingstars varies from 40 to 100 miles, though in a few cases they have been found to be even 300 nnd 400 miles long—the average length being 28 miles. The time of describing the visible path varies from less than one second to five seconds, and in some rare cases amounts to ten seconds; but their average duration is less than one second. The average duration of meteors whose brightness exceeds that of stars of the first magnitude is estimated at one and a half seconds. Their velocity relative to the earth's surface varies from 10 to 45 miles per second, and the average velocity of the blighter class of shooting-stars amounts to about 30 miles per second.
Shooting-stars are seen to move in all directions through the heavens. Their apparent paths are, however, general!} inclined downward, though sometimes they move upward; and after midnight they come in the greatest numbers from that quarter of the heavens toward which the earth is moving in its annual course around the siin.
The magnitude of shooting-stars is very variable. Some of them have been computed to have a diameter of 100 or 200 feet, and others 1000 up to 5000 or 0000 feet. We must, however, regard this as the diameter of the blaze of light which surrounds the meteor, while the meteor itself before it takes fire may have a diameter of only a few feet, or perhaps only a fraction of an inch. The apparent size of meteors is greatly magnified by irradiation.
l'rofessor Darkness has undertaken an elaborate investigation to estimate the qnantity of matter in shooting-stars by means of the light evolved during their-passage through the atmosphere, and he concludes that the mass of ordinary shooting-stars does not differ greatly from one grain ; that is,_/b«r hundred awl eighty ofthem would weigh ou/y one ounce at the surface of the earth.
Occasionally shooting-stars appear in great splendor, flashing with a brightness nearly equal to that of the full moon, and leaving behind them a train of dazzling light, which lasts for several seconds, and even for whole minutes. Their color is usually white, with a reddish tinge; but occasionally they exhibit a green light, and sometimes a mixture of green and blue or purple. Even quite faint shootingstars Bometimesjeave trains. Fig. 1 represents a remarkable meteor seen in June, 1866.
The path of shooting-stars is frequently curved; sometimes the path consists of two portions inclined to each other at a considerable angle; and at last the meteor sometimes hursts like a rocket into numerous fragments. In such cases the place of explosion is usually indicated by a smoky cloud, which sometimes continues visible for ten minutes. Fig. 2 represents a meteor seen in 1850, which was followed by a long train of light, and which exploded emitting a large number of scintillating radiations.
Observers frequently imagine that they hear a whizzing noise accompanying the passage of a brilliant meteor. It may be easily proved that such impressions are an illusion. When we compute the path of the meteor from which the sound was supposed to proceed, we always find that it was quite distant from the observer, frequently 40 or 50 miles, and sometimes 100 miles. Now sound is known to move with a velocity of 1120 feet per second, or 50 miles in about four minutes. If, then, any noise was caused by the motion of the meteor, the sound could not possibly be heard until a considerable time after the meteor disappeared, viz., two, five, or even ten minutes, according to its distance.
The light of shooting-stars is probably due to the high temperature resulting from the resistance of the atmosphere to the rapid motion of the meteor. Since at the ordinary elevation of shooting-stars the air is exceedingly rare, some have supposed that the resistance would not develop sufficient heat to give meteors their brilliant appearance. The researches of modern philosophers have enabled us to compute the quantity of heat that may be developed by the stoppage of a meteor in the atmosphere. A portion of the living force of the body is expended in setting the air in motion, and a portion in heating the meteor and the air. This living force, and the consequent heat that maybe developed, is proportioned to the mass of the body and to the square of its velocity. The arresting the motion of an iron meteor whose velocity is thirty miles per second would, if the whole living force were changed into heat, be sufficient to raise the temperature of the meteoric body more than four million degrees of Fahrenheit's scale. If even the larger part of this force was expended in giving motion to the air, there would remain enough to furnish a brilliant light and to melt the exterior portion of the meteor, or entirely to disintegrate it. Aerolites, such as will be hereafter described, always present a peculiar appearance upon the exterior, an if the outer crust had suffered partial fusion, and many of them when first discovered have still been quite hot.
The mean distance of shooting-stars from the observer is found to be about 105 miles, and the average height above the earth of the middle points of their paths is 63 miles. Hence the mean horizontal distance of the paths may be regarded as about 90 miles. It is estimated that the number of shooting-stars actually falling within a circle of 90 miles radius is somewhat greater^han the number seen at one place. The area of this circle is contained nearly 8000 times in the entire surface of the globe; whence we conclude that the number of shooting-stars over the whole earth is more than eight thousand times the number visible at one place.
The average daily number of shooting-stars visible to the naked eye at one place has already been stated at 1000. Hence the average number of meteors that traverse the atmosphere daily, and that are large enough to be visible to the naked eye, if the sun, moon, and clouds would permit, must be more than a thousand times eight thousand, or more than eight millions.
The observations of two European astronomers indicate that the number of meteors visible with, a telescope of four inches aperture is about forty times the number visible to the naked eye. A further increase of optical power would doubtless reveal a still larger number of these small bodies. Hence we must conclude that the source from which these meteors come is of immense extent, otherwise it would long since have been exhausted.
The quantity of matter in these bodies is, however, so small, and their distance from each other so great, that they exert no appreciable influence upon the motion of the planets. It is computed that the average distance from each other of shooting-stars, such as under favorable circumstances would be visible to the naked eye, is about three hundred miles.
Having determined the velocity and direction of a meteor's path with reference to the earth, and knowing also the direction and velocity of the earth's motion about the sun, we can compute the direction and velocity of the meteor's motion with reference to the sun. This computation has been made for several different meteors, and has shown that these bodies, before they approached the earth, were revolving about the sun in ellipses of considerable eccentricity. In some instnnces the velocity has been found to be so great as to indicate that the path differed little from a parabola.
It is thus demonstrated that ordinary shooting-stars are small meteoric bodies, moving through space in paths*similar to the comets: and it is probable that they do not differ miiterially from the comets except in their dimensions, and perhaps also in their density.
Tuesday, November 1, 2016
Wind Gale or Sun Dog
I ran across this interesting term while reading "Narrative of a Whaling Voyage Round the globe, from the year 1833 to 1836 by Frederick Bennett ©1840 The observation below was dated Nov. 6, 1833 off the coast of the Portuguese Island Madeira.
While thus detained, we noticed the phenomenon named by nautical men a " wind-gall," (query, "wind-gale?") or "sun-dog;"—abroad and perpendicular streak of iridescent colours, placed opposite the sun, and extending from a dark cloud to the verge of the horizon. It may be considered to be a fragment of a rainbow ; though its colours are much less delicate and diversified than those of the ordinary meteor of that name, and chiefly consist of a lurid-red, or copper-colour, and a bright olive-green, dividing the column vertically and in nearly equal proportions. Sailors consider its appearance a precursor of foul weather; nor had we, in this instance, any reason to doubt the correctness of their conclusion; since the succeeding night brought a heavy gale of wind, attended with thunder, lightning, and torrents of rain; and the presence of an ignis fatuus * on the summit of each mast-head, gleaming with its peculiar sickly and supernatural light.
* These mysterious meteors, so frequently observed during a thunder-storm at sea, have invariably a globular form, are about the size of a tennis-ball, and emit a paleblue light. They occasionally appear to pass rapidly from one part of the ship to another, or to drop from the mast-head to the yards beneath, remaining stationary on each for a few moments. Many names have been given to them. When one only is visible it is called Corpo Santo, or St. Helena; -when two, Castor and Pollux; and more, Tyndaridae, or St. Elmo's fire. It is probable that their origin is to be found in the effects of evaporation ; for, however much the atmosphere may have been surcharged with electricity, during tempests at sea, I have never observed them but as attendants upon rain.
I added this link Sun dog where you can see a picture of this as well.
While thus detained, we noticed the phenomenon named by nautical men a " wind-gall," (query, "wind-gale?") or "sun-dog;"—abroad and perpendicular streak of iridescent colours, placed opposite the sun, and extending from a dark cloud to the verge of the horizon. It may be considered to be a fragment of a rainbow ; though its colours are much less delicate and diversified than those of the ordinary meteor of that name, and chiefly consist of a lurid-red, or copper-colour, and a bright olive-green, dividing the column vertically and in nearly equal proportions. Sailors consider its appearance a precursor of foul weather; nor had we, in this instance, any reason to doubt the correctness of their conclusion; since the succeeding night brought a heavy gale of wind, attended with thunder, lightning, and torrents of rain; and the presence of an ignis fatuus * on the summit of each mast-head, gleaming with its peculiar sickly and supernatural light.
* These mysterious meteors, so frequently observed during a thunder-storm at sea, have invariably a globular form, are about the size of a tennis-ball, and emit a paleblue light. They occasionally appear to pass rapidly from one part of the ship to another, or to drop from the mast-head to the yards beneath, remaining stationary on each for a few moments. Many names have been given to them. When one only is visible it is called Corpo Santo, or St. Helena; -when two, Castor and Pollux; and more, Tyndaridae, or St. Elmo's fire. It is probable that their origin is to be found in the effects of evaporation ; for, however much the atmosphere may have been surcharged with electricity, during tempests at sea, I have never observed them but as attendants upon rain.
I added this link Sun dog where you can see a picture of this as well.
Thursday, October 13, 2016
Clipper Ships
One of the developments in the 19th century was the building of Clipper Ships in England and America. Clipper comes from a term regarding the pace of a fast horse but with regard to the ship it is because of the bow. The bow was narrow unlike other vessels at that time and the bow extended forward. This design allowed the ships to clip through the waves.
The first ship build was for the war of 1812 the Baltimore Clipper but the first to actually show the structure we know today as the clipper ship was built in 1833 in Baltimore. These ships are said to represent the Golden age of sailing. They were built for speed and for trade, specifically low volume, high-profit products. Spices, tea, mail and people were their primary cargo.
With the invention of steam these ships were gradually replaced with steam engines but they were quiet busy through the end of the century and into the early part of the next.
Another interesting tidbit is that American Clipper ships traveled primarily from Boston, MA. to New York and to San Francisco. In order to advertise these routes they put sailing cards in the local newspapers. Here's the thing, they used color in advertising. Below are a few cards:
The first ship build was for the war of 1812 the Baltimore Clipper but the first to actually show the structure we know today as the clipper ship was built in 1833 in Baltimore. These ships are said to represent the Golden age of sailing. They were built for speed and for trade, specifically low volume, high-profit products. Spices, tea, mail and people were their primary cargo.
With the invention of steam these ships were gradually replaced with steam engines but they were quiet busy through the end of the century and into the early part of the next.
Another interesting tidbit is that American Clipper ships traveled primarily from Boston, MA. to New York and to San Francisco. In order to advertise these routes they put sailing cards in the local newspapers. Here's the thing, they used color in advertising. Below are a few cards:
Saturday, August 27, 2016
Spectacles
Spectacles or Eyeglasses had no standard for a long time in their history. In 1833 William Beecher of Southbridge, MA. had a small jewelry and watch making business. He also felt the New England ingenuity could produce a better product. What he and four others made were standard spectacles with different lenses and the customer would pick a pair that best improved his or her eye sight.
This type of eyeglasses were the only kind until much later in the century.
Another tidbit is that sunglasses (tinted lenses) were out in 1880. Prior to 1875 the tinted lenses were used for medical purposes.
This type of eyeglasses were the only kind until much later in the century.
Another tidbit is that sunglasses (tinted lenses) were out in 1880. Prior to 1875 the tinted lenses were used for medical purposes.
Friday, August 19, 2016
NY Canals 1860
According to the History of Railroads & Canals ©1860, the state of NY reported this list of Canals.
NEW YORK STATE CANALS
Erie Canal. Opened in 1825
Champlain Canal. Completed in 1819
Black River Canal. (was a feeder canal to Erie)
Oneida Lake Canal. Completed in 1802
Oswego Canal. Opened in 1828
Seneca River Towing Path. completed in 1839
Baldwinsville Side-cut. purchased by the state in 1853
Cayuga And Seneca Canal. completed in 1839
Crooked Lake Canal. completed in 1833
Chemung Canal. completed in 1833
Chenango Canal. commencement of work 30th Sept. 1859
Genesee Valley Canal. completed in 1859
NEW YORK STATE CANALS
Erie Canal. Opened in 1825
Champlain Canal. Completed in 1819
Black River Canal. (was a feeder canal to Erie)
Oneida Lake Canal. Completed in 1802
Oswego Canal. Opened in 1828
Seneca River Towing Path. completed in 1839
Baldwinsville Side-cut. purchased by the state in 1853
Cayuga And Seneca Canal. completed in 1839
Crooked Lake Canal. completed in 1833
Chemung Canal. completed in 1833
Chenango Canal. commencement of work 30th Sept. 1859
Genesee Valley Canal. completed in 1859
Friday, February 19, 2016
Whaling
As I've mentioned before I grew up on Martha's Vineyard where the Whaling industry made a huge mark on the lives of those living on the Vineyard. Below is some basic information about the Whaling Industry. Perhaps your character has this in his or her past? Or perhaps they are in one of the many industries produced by the whaling industry. Have fun with the information and let your imaginations run wild.
The whale fishery is chiefly carried on by the people of Nantucket and New Bedford. The first people in America who undertook this business, were the inhabitants of Nantucket. This is a large island lying to the south of Cape Cod. It consists chiefly of sand, and affords hardly any soil that can be cultivated. The inhabitants who first settled upon this island, used, occasionally, to put off to sea in their boats, when they espied a whale near the shore, and attack him with their harpoons. The capture of so enormous a creature was a prize of great value to these people, and their success in these attempts induced them to make a regular business of it. Accordingly, they set up a very tall mast on the island, on the top of which a person stationed himself, to look out for whales. When he espied one, he gave a signal, and the whalemen, who were all prepared with their boats, put off in pursuit. This business was profitable for a time, but at length, the whales being thus constantly hunted, kept away from the coast; and the Nantucket people, finding their prey become scarce, were forced to build large vessels, and go farther out to sea, in quest of them. By degrees they extended their voyages to the utmost parts of the Atlantic ocean, and even into the south seas. In this manner they have become the most expert and enterprising whalemen in the world; and their island, which, by nature, was barren, inhospitable, and uninviting, has become a spot of great industry and wealth.
The whale ships are generally from three to four hundred tons, and carry large crews, and are well provided with boats, lines, and other apparatus for taking and cutting up the whales and extracting the oil. When a whale is espied, the whale boats are manned in pursuit. In every boat there is a very long and strong line, made fast to a harpoon. The harpoon is an iron spear, sharp and barbed, like an arrow; so that, when struck into the whale, it may keep its hold. The men are also armed with lances or spears, to kill the whale after he is struck with the harpoon.
A boat's crew consists of a harpooner, a boat-steerer, a linemanager, and other men to row and attend to the general management of affairs. When the boat approaches the whale, the harpooner strikes the harpoon with all his force into him; but if the boat should not get near enough for this purpose, he throws the harpoon at him; and such is the skill of these men, that the harpoon seldom misses, although thrown from a considerable distance. The whale, finding himself wounded, dives at once under water, pulling the line attached to the harpoon after him, with great velocity. The line lies coiled up in the bottom of the boat, and is allowed to run out as fast as the whale pulls it. The boat, meantime, is rowed swiftly after the whale, yet the line is drawn over the edge of the boat with such swiftness, that a person is employed in pouring water upon it, lest the friction should set the boat on fire. A hatchet is always at hand to cut the rope, in case of its getting entangled. A large whale will sometimes run out two or three miles of rope. All the boats are now seen rowing with all their might towards the spot where the whale is expected to rise; for these animals cannot remain long under water, but must rise occasionally to breathe.
When he appears, they strike him again with the harpoon and lances. Again he starts off with the boats in pursuit. After being greatly fatigued with the chase, and being severely wounded, he spouts up water mixed with blood; and the boats surround him and dispatch him with spears. As soon as killed, the whale is towed to the ship, and made fast by tackles, placed at the nose and tail. They then proceed to strip off the blubber.
The skin of the whale is black, and very thick; between this and the flesh is the blubber, or fat, from which the oil is extracted. The blubber is cut into long strips, which are hoisted into the ship, cut into smaller pieces, and thrown into the hold; from which it is afterwards taken, and the oil extracted by boiling it in large copper vessels. The oil is then put into casks and stowed away in the hold; thus the whaling ships sometimes come home completely laden with oil.
On the island of Nantucket, and also at New Bedford, are numerous spermaceti works. This valuable substance, which is so well known for its use in making candles, is found in the head of the spermaceti whale. The oil which this whale produces, is not so abundant as that afforded by some other whales, but in quality, is much superior. It burns with a bright flame, and does not occasion any disagreeable smell.
The spermaceti, in its crude state, is found in the head of the whale; and a single one contains several tons of it. The seamen call it the brains of the whale. It is contained in membranous cells, and is first taken out, and freed from the oil, by draining and pressing. Afterwards, it is more completely purified by steeping it in a ley of alkaline salt and quicklime, which dissolves the remainder of the oily matter into a soapy liquid. The brains then, being washed with water, appear of a silvery whiteness, and the large lumps are cut into shivers, with wooden knives, and spread out to dry. It is then melted and run into candles, or cast in round cakes, for other purposes.
Another product of this fishery is the whalebone, a substance well known for its elasticity and toughness, and in great use for making umbrella sticks, and for other purposes, when strength and flexibility are required. This substance is taken out of the head of the common whale, and is found attached to the jaws, occupying the place of the teeth in other animals.
Source: Scenes of American Wealth & Industry in Produce ©1833
The whale fishery is chiefly carried on by the people of Nantucket and New Bedford. The first people in America who undertook this business, were the inhabitants of Nantucket. This is a large island lying to the south of Cape Cod. It consists chiefly of sand, and affords hardly any soil that can be cultivated. The inhabitants who first settled upon this island, used, occasionally, to put off to sea in their boats, when they espied a whale near the shore, and attack him with their harpoons. The capture of so enormous a creature was a prize of great value to these people, and their success in these attempts induced them to make a regular business of it. Accordingly, they set up a very tall mast on the island, on the top of which a person stationed himself, to look out for whales. When he espied one, he gave a signal, and the whalemen, who were all prepared with their boats, put off in pursuit. This business was profitable for a time, but at length, the whales being thus constantly hunted, kept away from the coast; and the Nantucket people, finding their prey become scarce, were forced to build large vessels, and go farther out to sea, in quest of them. By degrees they extended their voyages to the utmost parts of the Atlantic ocean, and even into the south seas. In this manner they have become the most expert and enterprising whalemen in the world; and their island, which, by nature, was barren, inhospitable, and uninviting, has become a spot of great industry and wealth.
The whale ships are generally from three to four hundred tons, and carry large crews, and are well provided with boats, lines, and other apparatus for taking and cutting up the whales and extracting the oil. When a whale is espied, the whale boats are manned in pursuit. In every boat there is a very long and strong line, made fast to a harpoon. The harpoon is an iron spear, sharp and barbed, like an arrow; so that, when struck into the whale, it may keep its hold. The men are also armed with lances or spears, to kill the whale after he is struck with the harpoon.
A boat's crew consists of a harpooner, a boat-steerer, a linemanager, and other men to row and attend to the general management of affairs. When the boat approaches the whale, the harpooner strikes the harpoon with all his force into him; but if the boat should not get near enough for this purpose, he throws the harpoon at him; and such is the skill of these men, that the harpoon seldom misses, although thrown from a considerable distance. The whale, finding himself wounded, dives at once under water, pulling the line attached to the harpoon after him, with great velocity. The line lies coiled up in the bottom of the boat, and is allowed to run out as fast as the whale pulls it. The boat, meantime, is rowed swiftly after the whale, yet the line is drawn over the edge of the boat with such swiftness, that a person is employed in pouring water upon it, lest the friction should set the boat on fire. A hatchet is always at hand to cut the rope, in case of its getting entangled. A large whale will sometimes run out two or three miles of rope. All the boats are now seen rowing with all their might towards the spot where the whale is expected to rise; for these animals cannot remain long under water, but must rise occasionally to breathe.
When he appears, they strike him again with the harpoon and lances. Again he starts off with the boats in pursuit. After being greatly fatigued with the chase, and being severely wounded, he spouts up water mixed with blood; and the boats surround him and dispatch him with spears. As soon as killed, the whale is towed to the ship, and made fast by tackles, placed at the nose and tail. They then proceed to strip off the blubber.
The skin of the whale is black, and very thick; between this and the flesh is the blubber, or fat, from which the oil is extracted. The blubber is cut into long strips, which are hoisted into the ship, cut into smaller pieces, and thrown into the hold; from which it is afterwards taken, and the oil extracted by boiling it in large copper vessels. The oil is then put into casks and stowed away in the hold; thus the whaling ships sometimes come home completely laden with oil.
On the island of Nantucket, and also at New Bedford, are numerous spermaceti works. This valuable substance, which is so well known for its use in making candles, is found in the head of the spermaceti whale. The oil which this whale produces, is not so abundant as that afforded by some other whales, but in quality, is much superior. It burns with a bright flame, and does not occasion any disagreeable smell.
The spermaceti, in its crude state, is found in the head of the whale; and a single one contains several tons of it. The seamen call it the brains of the whale. It is contained in membranous cells, and is first taken out, and freed from the oil, by draining and pressing. Afterwards, it is more completely purified by steeping it in a ley of alkaline salt and quicklime, which dissolves the remainder of the oily matter into a soapy liquid. The brains then, being washed with water, appear of a silvery whiteness, and the large lumps are cut into shivers, with wooden knives, and spread out to dry. It is then melted and run into candles, or cast in round cakes, for other purposes.
Another product of this fishery is the whalebone, a substance well known for its elasticity and toughness, and in great use for making umbrella sticks, and for other purposes, when strength and flexibility are required. This substance is taken out of the head of the common whale, and is found attached to the jaws, occupying the place of the teeth in other animals.
Source: Scenes of American Wealth & Industry in Produce ©1833
Friday, May 23, 2014
Portland Cement
When I hear the term of Portland Cement I always thought that the stuff came from a manufacturer in Portland...NOT! Okay below are some basic tidbits on Portland Cement from 19th Century sources:
The term ''Portland Cement" as here used means an artificial cement made by mixing in certain known proportions, clay and chalk containing silica, alumina, iron, and carbonate of lime, and burning this mixture to the point of incipient vitrifaction and then reducing this burned product to an impalpable powder.
The term "Portland Cement" primarily means an artificial mixture. The term "Natural Portland" has very much the same meaning as natural artificial would have.
...
In the making of Portland cement. The selection of the raw materials, their proper treatment by the different methods in general use. The burning of this material with the types of kilns used. The reduction of the clinker to cement powder and its proper storage.
...
Source: Portland Cement it's Manufacture ©1895
PORTLAND cement is generally made from two material (chalk and clay), which are mechanically combined previous to calcination, the proportions of which are therefore always liable to variation; and as the results obtained will have different properties, the necessity of testing at once becomes apparent, not solely to detect a bad or imperfect cement, but also to determine the peculiar properties which the particular cement under consideration may posess, and as a guide to the means to be employed in order that it may be used to the best advantage.
Source: Portland Cement for Users ©1890
And lastly this tidbit from The Encyclopaedia Britannica ©1833 to help understand how the word 'cement' was used.
CEMENTS, substances employed to nnjte together by their solidification from a soft or liquid state, and without mechanical rivets, things of the same or of different kinds. Stony cements may be natural, as the lime employed for mortar, and the so-called Roman cements; or they may be artificial, as Portland cement, made by calcining mixtures of chalk with clay or river-mud (see Building, Vol iv. p. 459) Roman contains more clay than Portland cement, and seta more rapidly. A good artificial water cement is obtained by heating for some hours to redness a mixture of 3 parts of clay and 1 part of slaked lime by measure. Another hydraulic cement may be made by mixing powdered clay and oxide of iron with water. A very hard stone cement is prepared from 20 parts of clean river sand, 2 of litharge, I of quicklime, worked into a paste with linseedoil. Paper-pulp, mixed with size and plaster of Paris is used for moulded ornaments. Keene't marble cement is plaster of Paris which has been steeped in strong solution of alum or sulphate of potash, and calcined and ground. It is slaked with alum solution when used. In Martin's cement, pearl-ash is employed as well as alum. Parian cement contains borax. Selenitic cement is a mixture of calcined gypsum, sand, and hydraulic lime. A cement used for cracks in boilers is a mixture of clay 6 parts and iron filings 1 part with linseed-oil. For steam-joints, ox-blood thickened with quicklime is employed. The iron-rust cement consists of 100 parts of iron turnings, with 1 part of sal-ammoniac; this is an excellent cement for ironwork. For water-tight joints, equal parts of white and red lead are worked into a paste with linseed-oiL A serviceable packing for connecting pipes, making joints, filling cracks in retorts,
The term ''Portland Cement" as here used means an artificial cement made by mixing in certain known proportions, clay and chalk containing silica, alumina, iron, and carbonate of lime, and burning this mixture to the point of incipient vitrifaction and then reducing this burned product to an impalpable powder.
The term "Portland Cement" primarily means an artificial mixture. The term "Natural Portland" has very much the same meaning as natural artificial would have.
...
In the making of Portland cement. The selection of the raw materials, their proper treatment by the different methods in general use. The burning of this material with the types of kilns used. The reduction of the clinker to cement powder and its proper storage.
...
Source: Portland Cement it's Manufacture ©1895
PORTLAND cement is generally made from two material (chalk and clay), which are mechanically combined previous to calcination, the proportions of which are therefore always liable to variation; and as the results obtained will have different properties, the necessity of testing at once becomes apparent, not solely to detect a bad or imperfect cement, but also to determine the peculiar properties which the particular cement under consideration may posess, and as a guide to the means to be employed in order that it may be used to the best advantage.
Source: Portland Cement for Users ©1890
And lastly this tidbit from The Encyclopaedia Britannica ©1833 to help understand how the word 'cement' was used.
CEMENTS, substances employed to nnjte together by their solidification from a soft or liquid state, and without mechanical rivets, things of the same or of different kinds. Stony cements may be natural, as the lime employed for mortar, and the so-called Roman cements; or they may be artificial, as Portland cement, made by calcining mixtures of chalk with clay or river-mud (see Building, Vol iv. p. 459) Roman contains more clay than Portland cement, and seta more rapidly. A good artificial water cement is obtained by heating for some hours to redness a mixture of 3 parts of clay and 1 part of slaked lime by measure. Another hydraulic cement may be made by mixing powdered clay and oxide of iron with water. A very hard stone cement is prepared from 20 parts of clean river sand, 2 of litharge, I of quicklime, worked into a paste with linseedoil. Paper-pulp, mixed with size and plaster of Paris is used for moulded ornaments. Keene't marble cement is plaster of Paris which has been steeped in strong solution of alum or sulphate of potash, and calcined and ground. It is slaked with alum solution when used. In Martin's cement, pearl-ash is employed as well as alum. Parian cement contains borax. Selenitic cement is a mixture of calcined gypsum, sand, and hydraulic lime. A cement used for cracks in boilers is a mixture of clay 6 parts and iron filings 1 part with linseed-oil. For steam-joints, ox-blood thickened with quicklime is employed. The iron-rust cement consists of 100 parts of iron turnings, with 1 part of sal-ammoniac; this is an excellent cement for ironwork. For water-tight joints, equal parts of white and red lead are worked into a paste with linseed-oiL A serviceable packing for connecting pipes, making joints, filling cracks in retorts,
Friday, February 14, 2014
Happy Valentine's Day
Over the years I've had a few historical posts on Valentine's Day. Here are the links to past posts.
Valentine's Day 1833
ST. Valentine's Day 1898
Valentine's Day 1880
Valentine's Day Part 2 with links to another site with Historical cards
Valentine's Day 1833
ST. Valentine's Day 1898
Valentine's Day 1880
Valentine's Day Part 2 with links to another site with Historical cards
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