On This Date during the 19th Century

With the span of a hundred years, there were many things to choose but I decided on two. In 1878 the first being the first manuel telephone exchange in New Haven, CT. It served 21 subscribers. As much as I love to write about the 19th century I'm definitely a 20th & 21st century gal. When I was a kid I love talking on the telephone, I still enjoy speaking one on one with people but not with the same zeal as when I was a teen.

The second date I picked out to highlight is the same day in 1878 the first college newspaper was printed at Yale.

Of course there were more important events on this date in the 19th century but these go to my writer's heart. Enjoy and have a great weekend.

Telephone Timeline for 19th Century

March 10, 1876 Alexander Graham Bell yelled those now famous words "Come here Mr. Watson, I want to see you!" We all accept that to be the first monumental moment of the invention that would change our lives for ever. Below are a few other dates surrounding the history of the telephone during the 19th century.

1877 July The Bell Telephone Company was formed by Gardiner Hubbard. Watson oversaw the production of the first telephones in The Charles Williams Shop. Bell left for England opting out of the day to day operations of the company.

By the end of 1877 three thousand telephones were in service.

mid 1878 10,000 phones in service. Hubbard named Theodore Vail as the new general manager of the Bell Company.

1878 manuel switchboard was invented.

1879 Telephone subscribers begin to have designated telephone numbers

1880 Long distance service was established

1880's first "metallic" circuits were installed. Changing from one wire to two wire to reduce the extreme static noise from one wire.

1885 The American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T) is formed.

1891 Almon Strowger invented an "automatic" telephone allowing him to dial a number without waiting for an operator. The first one Strowger switch goes into operation in 1892

1899 Bell company had 800,000 phones in service.
Rural independent territories had 600,000

Winners of the League Base-Ball Championship

From Houghtaling's Handbook ©1887

Winners of the League Base-Ball Championship
The following were the winners of the championship of the National Base-Ball League for the years named below:
1886 - Chicago Club. . . Won 90 games, and lost 34 games
1885 - Chicago Club . . . Won 87 games and lost 25 games
1884 - Providence Club . . . Won 84 games and lost 28 games
1883 - Boston Club . . . Won 63 games and lost 35 games
1882 - Chicago Club . . . Won 55 games and lost 29 games
1881 - Chicago Club . . . Won 56 games and lost 28 games
1880 - Chicago Club . . . Won 67 games and lost 17 games
1879 - Providence Club . . . Won 59 games and lost 25 games
1878 - Boston Club . . . Won 41 games and lost 19 games
1877 - Boston Club . . . Won 31 games and lost 17 games
1876 - Chicago Club . . . Won 52 games and lost 14 games
(end quote)

1876 was the first year of the National League of Professional Baseball. It organized with 8 teams. The Boston Red Stockings (also called the Boston Red Caps), Chicago White Stockings, Cincinnati Red Legs (also called the Cincinnati Red Stockings), Hartford Dark Blues, Louisville Grays, Philadelphia Athletics, Brooklyn Mutuals (also called the New York Mutuals) & St. Louis Browns (also called the St. Louis Brown Stockings). There were 70 games for the season starting April 22nd and ending Oct. 21st.

For more information about this first year of professional baseball check out The Baseball Almanac

Central Railroad in GA

The information below comes from Hand-book of the state of Georgia: accompanied by a geological map of the state ©1878

CENTRAL RAILROAD

The Georgia also controls and operates the Macon and Augusta Railroad from Macon to Camak, 74 miles.
The cost of Building the Road is $4,253,048 40
Capital Stock 4,200,000 00
Funded Debt 615,500 00
Average Gross Receipts per annum 1,800,000 00
Average Operating Expenses 800,000 00
Annual Dividend 8 per cent.

Hon. John P. King is President. He has filled this office continuously since 1841. S. K. Johnson is Superintendent ; and Carlton Hillyer, Auditor. The principal office is at Augusta.

The Central Railroad Of Georgia.—This important railway was built about the same time as that of the Georgia. It was chartered December 20th, 1833; work commenced November, 1836, and was completed to Macon, October 13th, 1843, nearly 2 years before the Georgia was finished to Atlanta. It is a strong corporation, with extensive connections, and is one of the most important roads in the country.

Its length from Savannah to Macon is 192 miles. This was the original chartered line of road. It also built a branch from Gordon to Milledgeville, 17.25 miles. In 1872, the Macon and Western Railroad, from Macon to Atlanta, 103 miles, including the branch from Barnesville to Thomaston, 16.5 miles, was consolidated with the Central. During the present year (1876), the Savannah, Griffin, and North Alabama Railroad, from Griffin, on the Macon and Western, to Carrollton, Carroll County, 59.29 miles long, has become the property of the Central, thus making a total length of 388.29 miles actually owned by the Company.

In 1852, it leased the road from Milledgeville to Eatonton, 22 miles, and operates and controls it, virtually making a branch of the Central from Gordon, via Milledgeville to Eatonton, 39.25 miles.

In 1862, it leased the Augusta and Savannah Railroad, from Augusta to Millen, on the Central Road, 53 miles, which it controls and operates.

In 1871, it leased the South-western Railroad and branches as follows : Main line, Macon to Albany, 104 miles ; Branch, Fort Valley to Columbus, 71 miles ; Branch, Fort Valley to Perry, 11 miles ; Branch, Smithville to Eufaula, Ala., 61 miles ; Branch, Cuthbert to Fort Gaines, 22 miles ; Branch, Albany to Arlington, 37 miles : making a total of 306 miles.

It also leased the Vicksburg and Clayton Road from Eufaula, Ala., to Clayton, Ala., 21 miles. It also owns a half interest in the Western Railroad of Alabama, from West Point, Ga., to Selma, Ala., 138 miles, with branch from Columbus, Ga., to Opelika, Ala., 28 miles, or 166 miles in all. This road is owned jointly by the Central and the Georgia, obtained by joint purchase at public sale, in April, 1875.

It has also leased the Mobile and Girard Railroad, from Columbus, Ala., to Troy, Ala., 84 miles. It also owns a steamer on the Tombigbee River, plying between Columbus, Mississippi, and Demopolis, Ala.

It also owns a line of steamers on the Chattahoochee River, plying between Columbus, Ga., and Appalachicola, Fla. These boats are worth $97,000.

It also owns 6 steamships plying between New York and Savannah, involving a capital of $800,000.

The income of the road for the year ending September 1st, 1876, was $2,657,096.97, and its operating expenses, $1,635,131.10.

Its President is Wm. M. Wadley, and Superintendent Wm. Rogers ; principal office in Savannah. The principal office of the New York Steamship Line is in New York, Wm. R. Garretson being the Agent.

The Capital Stock of the Central Railroad Company is $7,500,000 ; its Bonded Indebtedness, $3,772,000.

Ice Box Refrigeration

Below are some interesting facts regarding refrigeration using an icebox. Often times today we think of those in the 19th century of not having refrigeration. And in terms of what we have today, that's somewhat true. However, below I've listed a few facts to help us rethink what our ancestors might have been using in the 19th century.

A lawsuit: Alaska Refrigerator Co. v. Wisconsin Refrigerator Co. et al. (Circuit Court, AT. D. Illinois. July 13,1891.)
Dealt with a patent violation: Here's the facts. The original patent No. 8,463, reissued October 22, 1878 and originally issued July 24th, 1877.

In another lawsuit it states "The original letters patent were granted to Azel S. Lyman, as inventor, Mar. 25, 1856 and were extended for seven years from Mar. 25, 1879 and were reissued to Lyman, Dec. 26, 1871 ...

This notes that the ice box was patented as early as 1856.

According to Ellen Plante in her book "The American Kitchen." She states that iceboxes were available in 1860 but not widely used until 1880.

In 1864 we have reference to the Refrigerator (icebox) in "The American Home cook Book: with several hundred excellent recipes by American Lady ©1864.

Cookware Utensils Part 2

This is a continuation of yesterday's post from Domestic Economy and household science by Robert Mann ©1878

Knives are, on the whole, the most difficult to keep in good order of all the hardware utensils of the house. They require to be very carefully cleaned whenever they have been used ; and, in order to keep the easily corrod- able surface of the steel polished and bright, they have to be rubbed with firmness and strength against a knife- board, furnished with a dressing of emery. If, however, the strength be not applied in the right way, very much of it is expended in turning and blunting the edges, and in bending and twisting the half-worn, thin ends of the blades, instead of in polishing their surfaces. The practical result of such clumsy handling is, not only that the knives are unduly worn away and destroyed, but, over and above this, that they are never fit at any time for convenient or comfortable use. It requires a very skilful hand indeed to cut a slice of bread with a knife whose edge is bent at right angles to the general direction of the blade, or to separate a mouthful of meat from a piece upon the plate, when the end of the knife turns up into the form of a bow under the slightest pressure.

Yet, all that is necessary for the avoidance of this annoying form of mischief is that the knife should be held quite flat upon the cleaning board whilst it is moved backwards and forwards, and that it should not be turned up with a sudden flourish and sweep when it is taken from the board. The movement, by which the metallic surface of the blade is carried along the board, should be firm and smooth, rather than violent, and as little abrupt as possible. The good habit, by which such handling becomes unconsciously, and as a matter of course, practised, is quite as easy to acquire as the vicious and uneconomical one which is more generally adopted, if the object to be aimed at be understood, and if attention be given to the attainment of the right method. As a general rule, however, both explanation and looking after

Cookware Utensils Part 1

Below is an excerpt from "Domestic economy and household Science" by Robert James Mann ©1878


LESSON LIV.

KITCHEN UTENSILS AND EARTHENWARE.

DEBIVATIONS.

Utensil.—An implement or vessel used in domestic service. Fr, Ustensile, a tool for use.

Corrosion.—A gnawing, or eating away. Lat. corrodo, to gnaw to pieces.

Molecular.—Belonging to molecules. Lat. mules, a mass.

Deteriorate.—To make worse. Fr. deteriorer, to damage, or injure.

Retort.—A glass vessel with a long bent neck, used in chemical processes. Lat. retortus, turned back.

The kitchen appliances are an important part of the furniture of a house, because they are all, more or less, directly connected with the preparation of food. The cooking of necessity suffers from inadequate provision in this department.

Cooking utensils are, almost without exception, made of metal, because they have to bear exposure to great heat. The two kinds of metal principally in use for their construction are copper and iron. Copper is preferred for kettles, saucepans, stew-pans and frying-pans in all cases where its greater cost is not of importance, and where adequate care can be given to keep it in a fit condition for use. It is more durable and more easily polished bright than iron.

Both copper and iron cooking utensils are tinned on the inside to preserve them from corrosion. It fortunately happens that tin is not easily acted upon by water and air at moderate heats, and that it is easily kept bright and clean. It is also readily attached to surfaces of both copper and iron, by an intimate kind of adhesion which amounts to the actual molecular joining together of the two metals where they touch. All that is necessary to produce this union is the placing of the melted tin in direct contact with the copper or iron made very clean and hot. This is readily done, because tin melts at a temperature which is only a trifle more than as hot again as boiling water. Tinned vessels, however, gradually deteriorate from the wearing away of the tin lining, and on that account they need to be tinned over again from time to time. If this be not carefully attended to, a poisonous compound, called verdegris, is apt to be formed in the case of copper, from the corrosion of that metal under the combined influence of air, moisture, and heat; and if any trace of this poisonous compound be left in the vessel when it is used in the preparation of food, it may be productive of great injury to the health of a household. The similar compound that is formed from the corrosion of uncoated portions of iron, is not poisonous in the same way. But it is also soluble in hot liquids, and communicates to them a metallic, ink-like taste, and, in many instances, an undesirable, dark colour. The interior tinned surfaces of cooking utensils are liable to be spoiled by the running of the tin into irregular patches and ridges, if the vessels are exposed to great heat when not containing water, or some other kind of liquid. When this has occurred, it is impossible for the irregularly ridged and wrinkled surface to be kept properly bright and clean.

The cheaper kinds of saucepans and kettles, which are spoken of as made of tin and which have the colour and gloss of tin inside and out, are in reality constructed of thin plate-iron, which is tinned on both surfaces. They are very cleanly and serviceable, but are easily injured by careless exposure to dry heat. They take the heat more quickly and also part with it more speedily than utensils of thicker metal.

The best iron saucepans are such as are lined with a kind of enamel, because this is even a more perfect and enduring protection against the corrosion of the iron by the moisture of the food, than tin. These enamelled linings are so beautifully hard and smooth that their surfaces can be washed as easily and perfectly as a plate of glazed earthenware. The enamelled saucepan, however, requires more judicious and tender handling than tinned vessels, because the enamel is apt to be cracked by a careless exposure to great heat, and, when it is cracked, it cannot be renewed as inside tinning can.

With all kinds of cooking utensils, it is essential to proper management that they should be cleaned as soon as they have been used. The soil which they acquire from the combined influence of the oily and other sticky constituents of the food, and of heat, is very much more easily removed if it be attacked at once than if it be left to dry and harden upon the metal before the cleaning is carried into effect.

Some of the utensils used for cooking, such as paste- and meat-boards, rolling pins, and spoons employed for some purposes, are made of wood. With these, prompt and unintermitting cleanliness is even more important than it is with utensils of metal, because grease and soil can soak into the actual substance of wood, and, when they do so, may go so far that they cannot easily be got back again. Implements of wood should always be washed with soap, or soda and water, directly after they have been in use, and, if this is properly done, they are easily kept in good order.

The most perfect, in point of cleanliness, of the utensils provided for domestic use unquestionably are those which are made of earthenware and glass. In both, the surface is formed of a hard glazed substance, which is quite impervious to water or grease, and which, therefore, can be washed thoroughly clean with the utmost ease. Both are, however, unfortunately brittle, and can be broken by rough and careless handling; and neither can bear great heat, or even sudden change from heat to cold, such as is produced by pouring cold water into a vessel directly after it has been filled with hot, without risk of fracture. Earthenware, however, is a perfect material for all those cooking processes which are performed before the fire is brought into play ; such as the mixing of sauces, puddings, cakes, and other food-preparations. If wood were used for these processes instead of earthenware, it would be almost impossible to prevent the flavour which hung about the wood, after it had been employed for one mixture, from finding its way into the next. The impenetrable glaze of earthenware is also unassailable by any of the acids which are used in preparing food, and which are especially prone to corrode metals.

Earthenware, in some of its forms, is made capable of withstanding a considerable amount of heat. This is illustrated in the case of pie- and tart-dishes, which have to remain in hot ovens during the baking of their contents. The glaze of these dishes in the end gets discoloured by the heat, but it even then continues to perform its work of keeping the ware itself impervious to liquids, so long as its own substance is not actually cracked.

The finer kinds of earthenware, of which are made the plates, dishes, cups, and saucers that are employed in the serving of food and drink after they have been prepared, and glass which is so universally seen upon the dinner table, are amongst the most beautiful and serviceable of the substances employed for the construction of household utensils. In both of them, the object of cleanliness is as perfectly obtained as it is possible for the most fastidious and exacting taste to desire. Everybody is aware how- very easily all articles of china and glass are washed after they have been used, and what an irresistible charm well-kept china and glass have when they are set out for a meal upon the table. The brittleness is the chief defect with either ware, and this is unhappily increased in proportion to the delicacy and excellence of the articles : with the notable exception that thin glass bears the sudden application of heat, such as is caused by the pouring in of a stream of hot water, better than the thicker kinds do. The thick kinds crack when hot water is suddenly poured into them, because the thick substance expands unequally as the heat slowly finds its way in, and the parts which are most expanded by the heat are then apt to be actually torn asunder from those that are so acted upon in a less degree. In thin glass, the heat gets through the entire thickness at once, and then all expands equally, without disrupture of the particles. On this account utensils of glass which are intended for heating, such as the retorts used by chemists, are always made very thin.

In the washing up of china and glass, deliberation and care are necessary; and the habit should be acquired of handling in this way articles that are at once so slippery and brittle. Such a habit must of necessity be formed by the exercise of thought and method, but is easily acquired when it is set earnestly and resolutely about.

Pioneer Preachers

In keeping with the theme of Wagon Trains, I thought I'd post a link to a webpage about a pioneer preacher named Keathley Bailes. They traveled from Missiouri to Oregon for six months by oxen in 1861.

Keathley Bailes

Fastest One Mile Swim

Today the closest we have to the one mile swim is the 1500 meter. If you're like me, you might have been caught up with this past year's Olympics when Michael Phelps captured our attention in all his achievements.

But did you know that before the current records were recorded 1896 to 2008 there was a man named Charles F. Senk and in New York City on Sept. 1, 1878 he swam one mile at a speed of 12:42.25. Yup, that's faster than the current record holder Grant Hackett 1500 meter in 14:34.56 which is approximately 109 meters less than a mile.

This information is in Houghtalings Handbook of Useful Information as well as on page 67 of The New York Clipper 1890 Annual. This book can be found at the Columbia University Libraries E-Book section. Here's the LINK In this source it states that he swam this mile in the East River. What I don't know is if he was going downstream or upstream. My guess would be downstream with the current.

19th Century Bedroom Furnishings Part 3

This is the final post on the Furnishings of the Bedroom. I hope you've enjoyed seeing what was a part of their design and thinking from the 19th Century.

For this excerpt I've inserted the illustrations as the writer mentioned them.

BEDROOM FURNITURE.
Fashionable Furniture.—Architect designing Furniture.

IN the illustration (Fig. 46)

we have several articles of bedroom furniture, modelled after the style of the seventeenth century, which recommends itself by its characteristic simplicity and honesty of treatment. The bed has a canopy framework, from which curtains are suspended, the cove being covered with stamped leather. The decoration in the panels may be inlaid, or painted simply in stencil pattern.
Fig. 47

shows a dressing-table of the same period, which, in some respects, answers the purpose of a bureau, being liberally supplied with drawers. There is, also, a corner cabinet, intended for a jewel-case, back of which a small burglar and fire-proof box may be inserted in the brickwork, and entirely masked by an inner door. Medicine-cases are often constructed in this manner.
Figs. 48 and 49

are a wash-stand and commode of the same school. Fig. 37

is a hanging cabinet, similar to the one in the library (Fig. 30).

(The hanging cabinet is on the left hand side of the image.)
One great difficulty in the way of introducing furniture of this description is, that people do not know where to find it. They usually go to a fashionable dealer, and are compelled to choose from what they see before them. It is true that several of our manufacturers have attempted to offer something better in the way of design, and with considerable success and profit. But their great mistake has been that, knowing they had the monopoly, they made their prices so high that few could afford to deal with them, thus confining the possibility of exercising good taste to wealthy persons alone. There is really no reason why this furniture should be more expensive than any other. That fashionable upholsterers should subordinate art to sordid and mercenary considerations indicates a short-sighted policy; for the wider the diffusion of art culture among the people, the greater will be the demand for furniture of artistic design. If one of their patrons desires anything new, they will usually prepare a design, and with it submit a price; but should he ask to retain the drawing in order to get further estimates, the privilege is promptly refused, and the statement usually vouchsafed that they are not in the habit of
allowing other manufacturers to profit by their brains. One is, therefore, compelled to take an inferior design from another establishment, or pay the price of the original estimate, exorbitant as it may be. There is a simple remedy for all this which, as I have mentioned before, is coming into practice.
Source: Modern Dwellings in Town and Country Adapted to American Wants ©1878

Tacks

Here's something a little different for today's tidbit. TACKS, that's right those tiny little things that hold up papers on a board, fabric down on furniture and a pain when stepped on.

TIN TACKS
A few bright Nails of truth, Pins of thought, Pivots of illustration, and small Tin-Tacks for the Tiny Folks, are worth far more, practically, to busy workers than all the enlarged addresses in the world.
Source: Tin Tacks for Tiny Folks ©1898 The book is actually a sampler of various lessons one could use to help teach children.

In 1899 a patent was present for a machine for driving tacks in rapid fire action.

A patent for: This invention relates to improvements in hand-operated nailing-machines to drive tacks or nails in boots and shoes for lasting them.
Source Specifications and Drawings of Patents Issued from the US Patent Office ©1878

When lightening was reported in striking a house:
The several parcels of nails, tacks, hinges, &c. that lay in the course it took, were very plainly affected by it: some of the small tacks in particular were soldered together, 6, 7, 8, or 10 in a clump, as if scalding metal had run over them. The papers of the parcels were burnt in small holes.
Source: The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London ©1809

BRASS TACKS
Often ornamental as shown in the examples below:
Indian Muzzle-loading Rifle, cal. 52, made by H. E. Leman, Lancaster, Pa., percussion-lock, octagon barrel, maple stock, patch box, brass trimmings, ornamented with brass tacks. It also has a bullet hole through the stock near the patch box. [I.]
Indian M. L. Rifle, cal. 52, made by H. E. Leman, Lancaster, Pa., percussion-lock, Octagon barrel, maple stock, brass trimmings, patch box; stock ornamented with brass tacks, and broken near the lock; repaired with rawhide.

Also listed in some supplies:
Cooper Tacks,
Zinc Tacks
Iron Tacks
Steel Tacks
Lead Tacks

This advertisement comes from Geyer's Stationer ©1877

Proper Settings for Various Rooms

For those of us writing historical novels we often need to refresh ourselves with the various customs and manners of the past. Below are some excerpts from "Manners of Modern Society: Book of Etiquette" ©1878 about how various rooms in the house should appear. Enjoy!

The morning-room should be cheerful and sunshiny, and wear a domestic, cosy look. It is not fitted up with any particular style of furniture. The curtains and covers will be of some kind of smallpatterned chintz, with a carpet to match. Nothing very grand or very new should find its way into this apartment—nothing stiff or formal. Tables here and there, and chairs of different sorts and sizes, a stand with plants, a small piano, a low book-case—these are the principal features in a room of this description, a general elegant deshabille pervading the whole.
The fittings and furniture of the dining-room must be grave, formal, and massive; but not too elaborate. The most prominent feature is the sideboard. The dining-table used to rank high in beauty and finish, but now that is little cared for; and, provided the top be a broad one, it may be of white or any kind of wood, in these degenerate days when the cloth is never removed for dessert.
The carpet and drapery of this room should be dark, and yet warm and bright-looking, and there must be no ornaments save pictures—oil paintings —" a room hung with pictures is a room hung with thoughts"—and one or two ornaments on the mantelpiece.

The library presents generally a sombre aspect; its walls lined with lofty book-shelves, and one or two tables for the purposes of holding writing materials, pamphlets, and papers.

And now we enter the room which, though most persons try their best, so few succeed in furnishing and arranging tastefully; for, after all, the arrangement of the furniture adds greatly to or takes away from the appearance of the room. This is, par excellence, the lady's room—unless the house is large enough to afford her a boudoir—and the character of the lady herself may be told by inspecting that one room. How very seldom we see the model drawingroom! No upholsterer's routine work should be visible here in stiff suites of furniture (except in case of a drawing-room reserved for special occasions); elegant refinement should reign predominant. cheerfulness should go hand-in-hand with taste. Easy chairs are here a sine qua non. There seems to be a natural affinity between civilised beings and easy chairs, for everybody secures one where possible; therefore let them predominate in the drawingroom—some with high backs and some with low, some with straight backs and some with round, in all nooks and corners. Tables must be placed here, there, and everywhere, and yet not in the way; flowers or plants in vases, scattered about; and ornaments, simple or costly as the case may be, but always in good taste, and, above all things, not overcrowded. But the drawing-room will not be complete, nor yet have its properly comfortable look about it, unless there are plenty of books to be found on the tables, and these should be readable and entertaining volumes of prose and poetry, illustrated works, and magazines, which will not only serve their original purpose, but also supply subjects for conversation at all times, and more especially during that mauvais quart d'heure which precedes a dinner.
The greatest charm in such a room is, that it impresses you with the feeling that it is a resort constantly occupied, used, and enjoyed by the lady of the house. There is something indefinable, which chills and depresses one, on entering a room only used on very state occasions—one that is just inhabited while receiving visitors; a room where the fire-irons are arranged in stiff angles; every appliance in formal array, evidently never exercised in daily wear; where the tables are geometrically studded with smartly-bound unread volumes, and the prim couch and stiff chairs look as if they were meant for anything but to be sat upon.
Family comfort and enjoyment lie dead in a room of this description. This idea, once so prevalent, of having a " best room," is less general nowadays. It is a piece of folly and bad taste which has often been decried. A writer to the Connoisseur complains: "I have elegant apartments, but am afraid to enter them. All the furniture, except when we have company, is done up in paper; it is so genteel that we of the household must not use it commonly, which I consider a ridiculous absurdity and a great hardship."
To ensure comfort in one and all rooms, care should be taken that they are equably heated, neither too hot nor too cold—so that one is not roasted by the fire on one side and frozen by a cold draught of air on the other. Francis, sometime Emperor of Austria, said that it required as much talent to warm a room as to govern a kingdom. Of course part of that talent must be supplied by the architect; but judicious management is also required to preserve the equability; and a room full of people will become irrevocably depressed and glum when they are half-stifled with heat or shivering with cold.

1878 Historical Fashions

The images below come from 1878 sources.

Afternoon Dress

Young Lady

Summer Dresses

Straw Hat

Straw Bonnet

Tuscan Straw Bonnet

Children

Children's Hat

Young Girls Dress

Carpets

Below is an excerpt from the book "Art Decoration Applied to Furniture" regarding Carpets. Skim the article for some interesting tidbits in what went into selecting a carpet for your home during the 19th Century. The book was published in 1878.

CARPETS.
AFTER the appearance of the hall, the carpets give the first impression of the house to the person who enters, and they afford constant and countless sensations to the person who stays —unconscious sensations of comfort, if they are suitable; very conscious and continual ones of discomfort and annoyance, if they are inharmonious, glaring, and self-asserting.

The carpet is to the room exactly what the background is to the picture: it throws up the whole effect, the main features and their suggestions, and is content with that part. The moment it makes itself obtrusive or in the least degree noticeable, it becomes vulgar and disagreeable. It should, indeed, be such that one forgets to observe it, or if caused to do so by any accident, finds its perfection and quiet beauty with a little pleased surprise. What is usually called the quality of the carpet is of no sort of consequence in comparison to these qualities, although the want of harmony could hardly fail to be felt if a rich tapestry were laid upon the floor of an inferior little room with shabby walls and cheap chairs, or if a common ingrain were stretched upon the floor of a drawing-room with inlaid walls, boule cabinets, Venetian mirrors, and gilt sofas. It goes without saying, of course, that the unities in this regard are just as much to be preserved in the furnishing of a room as in the composition of a drama or any other work of art, and not unity of style so much as of character: the room makes its toilet; and we should think but poorly of the lady's taste who, with her trailing satins and her jewels, wore calf-skin brogans and cotton gloves.
The color of the carpet should always be chosen in relation to the general design of the room. To secure a thoroughly pictorial effect to the eye as a whole, and a comfortable one to the senses, the carpet, a little darker than other portions, should present the main body tint from which the rest of the room works up in lighter tints, unless strong contrasts rather than blending shades are desired.

The figure, or pattern, of the carpet should usually be small, and always should be treated conventionally, or with a near approach to the conventional, that is, without the attempt at natural imitations of fruit and flowers and Cupids and shells, but in the suggestions of things arranged upon geometrical base, better if the repeat is not to be traced at first glance. If the colors are well mingled, bit by bit will come out in its turn, and what produces but a negative effect altogether will be seen by itself to be bright and rich and fine.

Painting Photographs

Below is some basic information on painting photographs curing the 19th Century.

Colors for the Eyes.
Blue Eyes.—If they are light blue,, use thin Cobalt; shadow delicately with the same and a touch of Indigo; add White to Cobalt for the illuminated part of the iris—if it is not left sufficiently clear in the photograph. If they are dark blue, use a deeper tint of Cobalt, and shadow with Indigo. If "deeply, darkly, beautifully blue" (as are some children's eyes), the effect can be heightened by using French Blue; but carefully, as it is a powerful color.
Gray Eyes.—Define them delicately with India Ink and a tinge of Cobalt; if the eye has been photographed with sufficient distinctness, use Cobalt alone. If of a bluish-gray, use Indigo instead of the Cobalt. Add White for the illuminating. Gray eyes often change to yellow hazel as the person grows older, and are to be painted in this transition state by tinting the illuminated part slightly with Yellow Ochre, which will produce a greenish-yellow tone.
Light (or Yellow) Hazel Eyes.—Use Yellow Ochre,
slightly toned with Neutral Tint for the local color. Shadow with Vandyke Brown, and illuminate delicately with White added to the local.
Dark (or Brown) Hazel Eyes.—For the local color use Vandyke Brown, or if the print is dark, use Burnt Sienna. Shadow with Sepia. Illuminate with Burnt Umber and White, and sometimes Burnt Sienna and White.
Black Eyes.—Although all dark-colored eyes are generally called '' black," reference is now specially made to that description of eye which has its iris of so deep a brown as to be scarcely distinguishable from the pupil. They are peculiar to brunettes and people generally who are from tropical countries. Use Sepia and Vandyke Brown for the local color. Shadow with the same, mixed with Neutral Tint or India-Ink. Illuminate with Burnt Sienna and Chinese White.
Painting the Cheeks.
The nearest approach to the color of the cheeks will be found in a mixture of Pjnk Madder and Vermilion, either color prej dominating according to the subject. It should be kept in mind that children ought to have more Vermilion, adults more Pink Madder, and old people more of a purple tone,—this last being made by adding a little Cobalt to the former mixture, provided the photograph itself does not give a bluish tone.
Remember that the use of Carmine or Crimson Lake is not recommended for carnations; the one being too bright, the other too purple,—and both are fugitive. On the contrary, all the Madders are durable and in every respect better. Pink and Rose Madder seeming to differ only in intensity, may be used according to the option of the student . Either can be used for men, but Vermilion should be added for young women and children.
In applying the carnations, observe the grades of color and light on the cheek-bones, and do not lay out the cheek-tint in a circular, but in a triangular form, having its angles at the temple, lower jaw, and the nostrils. In no case should the carnations be washed on, but always stippled; although in very large pictures they can be hatched.
Painting the Chin.
In nature the chin being somewhat of a redder tone than the ( surrounding color, it is to be treated in like manner as the cheeks, though in a very slight degree; and care must be used not to commit the error of over-tinting.
Painting the Lips.
The upper lip being nearly always in shadow, is both darker and less bright in color than the lower lip. If the mouth in the photograph be not too dark, use Indian Red with a little Crimson Lake for the upper lip; if dark, use Pink or Rose Madder heightened with Vermilion. For the lower lip, wash' it first with thin Vermilion, or Orange Chrome and Rose Madder, and in .either case model and shade it afterwards by stippling with Pink Madder. Observe that in painting both lips, the more distant parts are to be less vivid in color.
The lips of children require more Vermilion, and those of I aged persons more Pink Madder,—not unfrequently approximating a slight purple tone.
The painting of the mouth is perhaps the most delicate and hazardous of all the features, on account of its variableness of expression. In defining the partition-line between the lips, the slightest deviation will alter its character and damage the portrait. Especially so at the corners of the mouth, wherein most of the expression lies. Hence it behooves the student to consider well its distinctive marks as photographed, before commencing, and work throughout with the utmost care.
As has been already observed respecting the carnations, it will be well to paint the lips with a. full tone of color, in order to provide against the unavoidable deterioration which time will effect.
Painting the Ears.
In painting the ear, which is semi-transparent, let the shadows be made warm and inclining to red. The inside of the ear should be colored with Pink Madder and Indian or Venetian Red, and the tips very lightly with Rose or Pink Madder alone.
The ear should always be well toned down, so that it will set back, and be wholly secondary to the more important lights. A large or prominent ear is considered ever an ugly, unsightly object: and as it is an organ without being a feature it should never be painted in a manner that would increase its conspicuity. If practicable, it is more judicious to partially cover it with the hair,—which can be done in most pictures without materially changing the drawing.
Painting the Neck and Bosom.
The general tint of the neck, as it will be noticed in nature, is much below the color of the face, and invariably of a grayer tone. The flesh-wash might therefore be somewhat reduced for the neck, and the pearly tints added to a more considerable degree. The clavicles or collar-bones peering through the flesh, are to be sometimes tinged slightly with Pink, but great care should be used to avoid rendering them too distinct and angular. The shadows of the bosom are usually of a bluish tint.
Although a well-curved neck, and round, plump shoulders do not by any means appear in the majority of photographs of ladies so taken, the colorist may very safely assume the privilege of correcting the drawing of his picture, so as to produce these desirable elements of physical beauty. Few ladies will object to any roundness of the neck or graceful droop of the shoulders which it may be possible for the artist to bestow on their pictures. Some delicate touches of Pink Madder can be put on the extreme point of the shoulders; whilst Indian Red and Cobalt will serve to shadow the flesh around the arm-pit.
Painting the Arms and Hands.
The foregoing remarks apply somewhat to the painting of the arms, although the lower arm often partakes of a very slight purple hue. Indian Red alone can be used for the first tints, working over them, when necessary, with Blue; and observing the reflected lights, which are always to be kept warm. The elbows should be tinted with Pink Madder, but delicately; and any disagreeable angularity rounded off—as before observed.
The Hands in most photographs, by reason of their distance from the focus-point of the camera (generally directed to the face), are disagreeably enlarged; and in some cases partially shadowed. For these reasons it is often desirable to cut them down, shorten the fingers, cover them with thin drapery, or '' paint them out" entirely.
When the division-lines of the fingers are light or somewhat indistinct they may be drawn with Brown Madder, or Sepia and Crimson Lake. If already rather dark, use Light Red or Burnt Sienna.
The tips of the fingers, the knuckles, and the outside of the hands are more rosy than the other parts, and require to be hatched with a little Pink Madder. Before doing this, however, it may be advantageous to rub out the flesh-wash a little in these particular parts; and when the hands are perfectly flat— as in old copies—and without definition and modelling, this rubbing out of a portion of the flesh-wash assists very greatly the raised appearance of the knuckles, and other lights.
A liberal use of Cobalt in the hands is recommended—particularly for those of women and children—in order to attain clearness and the appearance of veins. This effect is also more necessary tor female hands, the skin of which is intended to appear very fair and transparent.
The general tone of color in the hands should be very much below that of the face (except when the head rests upon one of them), so that they shall not first attract the beholder's eye, which ought always to be drawn involuntarily to the face,—the portrait!
Source: How to Paint Photographs in Water Colors and in Oil ©1878

Cabins

In 19th Century literature you'll find several books, poems, etc. written with a cabin as a major focus. Below is a list with links to various resources. Something to keep in mind that during the 19th century a cabin was a single room structure.

The most common source would be Life at the South or more commonly known as Uncle Tom's Cabin ©1852

The Log Cabin ©1844

The Hunter's Cabin ©1862

Poor Paddy's Cabin ©1854

The Cabin in the Clearing & Other Pioneer Poems ©1868

The Cabin on the Prairie ©1869

The Mud Cabin ©1853 So this one is not fiction but uses the term with regard to the politics or how the author saw the politics of Britain at this time.


Of course a cabin can be more nautical in nature so we have The Cabin Boy's Story ©1854

Chronicles of Capstan Cabin ©1878

The Two Cabin Boys©1881

The Captain's Cabin ©1877

Old English Plum Pudding

Personally I've never had Plum Pudding but you read and hear all about it during the Christmas season so I thought it might be fitting to start our holiday plans with some recipes of Old English Plum Pudding. This tidbit begins with a poem about said item.

THE PLUM PUDDING OF ENGLAND.
We've long sung the praise of old English roast beef,
The mighty Sir Loin, and the Baron his chief,
But beef without pudding, with turkey no chine,
That is not the way that we Englishmen dine.

Then here's "the plum pudding of England!"
Old English plum pudding for me!

Plum pudding's a mixture of all that is good,
No Frenchman to make it ere yet understood;
To plain roast and boiled he too vain is to stoop,
Roast beef he makes brick bats, and plum pudding
soup.

That's not the plum pudding of England!
The sort of plum pudding for me!

The commerce of England extends o'er the world,
"Where'er the winds whistle our sails are unfurled,
Then home come our ships with plums, sugar and spice,
With currants and citrons, and all that is nice
To make the plum pudding of England.
Old English plum pudding for me!

The corn growing fields of old England ne'er fail,
Our flour it is sweet and our eggs never stale,
Our suet is fresh, but the taste to enhance
We don't mind a dash of the Brandy from France
To make the plum puddings of England.
Old English plum pudding for me!

The man who plum pudding refuses to eat
I'd hold you a wager at heart is a cheat,
While he who well loves it deserves a good wife
For he feels himself young, and a boy all his life
While he eats the plum pudding of England.
Old English plum pudding for me!

May solid plum pudding then, year after year,
At Christmas ne'er fail us to make us good cheer;
Well boiled—plump and round—deck'd with holly—

I wish Merry Christmas to all, and for ever a dish
Of the jolly plum pudding of England!
Old English plum pudding—Hurrah!
1878 John Edwards Carpenter

Old English Christmas Plumb Puddings.
The Harrisburg Telegraph furnishes its readers with a recipe for the real "Old English Christmas Plumb Pudding." After having given this pudding a fair test, I am willing to endorse every word of it; and wish for the holiday to come oftener than once a year:
"To make what is called a pound pudding; take of raisins well stoned but not chopped, currants thoroughly washed, 1 lb. each; chop suet, 1 lb., very finely, and mix with them; add 1/4 lb. of flour or bread very finely crumbled; 3 ozs. of suger; 1 1/2 ozs. of grated lemon peel, a blade of mace,1/2 of a small nutmeg, 1 tea-spoon of ginger; 1/2 doz. of eggs, well beaten; work it well together, put it in a cloth, tie it firmly, allowing room to swell; put it into boiling water, and boil not less than two hours. It should not be suffered to stop boiling.
The cloth, when about to be used, should be dipped into boiling water, squeezed dry, and floured; and when the pudding is done, have a pan of cold water ready, and dip it in for a moment, as soon as It conies out of the pot, which prevents the pudding from sticking to the cloth. For a dip gravy for this or other puddings, see the'• Biscuit Pudding without fie-Baking,"or "Spreading Sauce for Pudding."
Source: Dr. Chase's Recipes ©1875

Plum Pudding.
(Family Recipes.)—(1.) Beat two eggs and a little salt well together, then put to them three-quarters of a pound of stoned rasins (or currants), the same quantity of minced suet, and of flour. Add as much skim milk as will make it very stiff. Boil the pudding full five hours, for on this depends its being so good. No wine, brandy, or sugar the least necessary.
(2.) Small Plum Pudding.—One pound of minced suet, one pound of stoned raisins, six ounces of flour, four ounces of sugar, five whole eggs well beaten. A little cinnamon if liked. Boil full five hours.

Plum Pudding.—Mince finely one pound of fresh suet, picked from every scrap of skin, half a pound of stoned raisins, five ounoes of flour and the same of breadcrumbs, five ounces of brown sugar, the peel of two Seville Oranges (lemons if you cannot possibly get Seville Oranges), and four eggs, leaving out two of the whites. Mix together with as much milk as will just make it too thick to pour, but not as stiff as a paste. Do not beat or knead the pudding, but mix it all thoroughly together. Tie it tight in a cloth, as tight as possible, and boil it for six hours precisely.

Some people boil Plum Pudding in a mould. If so, let the pudding made as above rest for six hours before it is put in. Line the mould with buttered paper, press the pudding in, put a buttered paper on the top, tie a thick pudding-cloth closely over it, and boil as above for exactly six hours.

Oronoeo Sauce fop Plum Pudding.—(Family Recipe.)— A quarter of a pound of butter, and rather more of finely powdered sugar, beat well together with a wooden spoon till quite light and white, then add, drop by drop, a tablespoonful of brandy, and work it again till thoroughly mixed—which is troublesome to do. Put it in a sauce-boat, and set on ice till wanted. (This sauce is now called Brandy Butter.)
Source: Mrs. Roundell's Practical Cookry Book ©1898

Plum Pudding—Two cups flour, 1 heaping cup of bread crumbs, 1 cup of molasses, 1 1/2 cups stoned raisins, Y2 cup citron (cut fine), 1 cup suet chopped fine, 1 cup sweet milk, 1 tablespoon soda, 1 teaspoon salt, 1 1/2 teaspoons of cloves and cinnamon; steam two and a half hours. To be eaten with butter sauce.—Mrs. J. H. Porter, Atlanta.

Plum Pudding.—This pudding is best when prepared, all but eggs, the day before using. Three-fourths pound picked and finely-chopped suet, 3/4 pound of stoned raisins, 3/4 pound of currants, 1/4, pound of citron cut in small slices, 3/4 pound of powdered sugar, 3/4 pound of bread crumbs grated, 1 lemon, grated yellow rind and juice, 1 tablespoon of powdered mace and cinnamon mixed and 2 powdered nutmegs, 12 eggs beaten separately. Steep allspice in 1/2 pint of mixed wine and brandy over night closely covered. Beat wine and eggs together until thick and smooth, then add bread crumbs. Mix with the sugar, grated yellow rind and juice of lemon, then add gradually prepared ingredients, stirring hard. Butter pudding mold, fill with mixture and boil four hours. Sprinkle hot dish with powdered sugar. Turn out pudding; pour 1/2 pint warm rum and light when taking to the table. This is sufficient for twenty persons.—Mrs. Willie Conyers Cook, Inman Park.
Source Tested Recipe Cook Book ©1895

Adorning Chairs

Below is an excerpt from Goodey's Magazine ©1878 about how to adorn or rather upholster chairs. I found it interesting in what they referred to in the barrel chair under the seat. See what you think.

HINTS ON HOME ADORNMENT
NUMBER EIGHT
In selecting furniture nowadays, strength and solidity in the articles are the first requisites. The Queen Anne and Saxon-Gothic styles are in favor; and almost anything quaint and antique is quite the thing. Very rich materials of raw silk, in Indian and Persian designs, are among the latest styles for furniture coverings. There is broad scope for originality in furnishing now, so that one could carry out some of the strangest fancies without producing muré ell'ect, or danger of making their home look odd, as every one else is striving for oddity too. One of the most superb parlors which I have ever seen had no two chairs of the some style—there was a wonderful variety among the furniture —yet a. harmony, elegum. and sense of comfort in the whole apartment whith I burn never seen equalled. I have seen admirable upholstery which was the work of amateurs; and many persons in out-0f-the-way places could Mlle or repair chairs, sofas, ctc., themselves, without having to wait until they could Send to some dill-int town to have the work done. If you wish to make a spring seat to a chair, for instance, you will find it is best, in the first place, to have a wooden foundation to the seat. Then procure iron wire Filling!- These are secured to the wood by pieces of '39a put through the lower coil, and tacked down firle to the wood. It is very important that the 'Prings should be secured properly, or they will get l'mc and slip sideways. When the springs are all m Place, take strong twine and pass it back and lofth eight times, knotting at the crossings to the "We and the twine (Fig. 1),

drawing the ends of the cords down, and securing them to the frame outside of the seat. Burlaps or heavy canvas should then be drawn tightly over the springs and closely tacked around the edges. Then strip of canvas should be stuffed –making a long, narrow roll–and put around the edge of the seat. This should be stitched with fine twine–four or six rows round–till it is brought at the top to a square edge. This is called stitched edge, is very elastic and will not break down. Next, hair is spread over the surface of the seat, and strong muslin drawn tightly over it; and lastly, the material for the outside covering is put on, and a gimp neatly tacked round the edge.
Everything depends on a good foundation,' if that is all right, then your chairs will wear well, even if stufled with tow. A good substitute for hair, in upholstery, is called sisal. It is made from mnnilln hemp, and when well-twisted and dyed resembles hair. The gray Southern moes is also a substitute When plush is used for furniture covering, it should be put on so that the nap will run down seats and backs, as it will wear better and not show dust.

Figures 2 and 3 represent :t barrel-chair, which is an ingenious and n comfortable “affair”
Figure 2 shows how the barrel should be sewed to make the back of the right shape. and how the seat is fitted in. If the chair is to be used in a chamher, the seat can he made so that it will lift up and form a convenient shoe-box beneath. A long narrow roll cushion (such as is used around the edge of chair seats) is put around the edge of the back of this chair, so as to produce the effect shown in Fig. 3

Fig. 4 represents a chair which is easily upholstered, as the material is put on smooth without "tuffing," and is quite stylish. The stripe is of velveteen, with the design in appliqué work.

The Dinning Room

I found this great little book called The Dinning Room available on Google Books. It's a great resource with a lot of illustrations and descriptions of various items for a household and to entertain on a budget. I'm adding this tidbit on Saturday as an extra for the week. Enjoy!

Scotch Broth

This is a soup rarely heard about today but was quite common in the 19th Century even into the 20th Century. In a way it makes sense that it is called Scotch Broth since lamb or mutton is the primary source for the soup. Most of the recipes I found were very similar so I'm only putting a select few for today's post.

SCOTCH BROTH.
Take about eight pounds of the neck and bone parts of lamb or mutton. Trim off all the outside or skin parts. Cut off the lean portion (being careful not to take any fat), cut in small bits and save for the next day. Put to boil all the trimmed parts. Boil several hours, strain and keep until next day. Remove all the fat, add one-half cupful of pearl barley, cook four hours. Add two onions, one-half carrot and one turnip chopped fine. .Also cook the small bits of meat and add to the broth. Season to taste with salt, pepper and parsley chopped fine.—Lyda McKinley.
The Puritan Cook-Book ©1898


Scotch Broth.—Cut the neck mutton into chops and put it in a saucepan with 4 pints of water, as soon as it boils taie off the scum, and then add 2 turnips cut in small 8 squares, 1 large carrot, and 3 onions also cut, 3 tablespoonsful of mushroom ketchup. Cover it closely, and let it stew for four or five hours gently. Then take out the meat and cut it in small pieces, and after skimming all the fat from the broth return the meat to it, season it and send it to table with the addition of a small quantity of light dumplings the size of a walnut or suet dumpling.
Source: Tried & Approved Recipes ©1878

Scotch. Broth.—Take some middle cutlets from neck of mutton; trim them ; then take the trimmings and put them into a stewpan, with some of the scraps and small pieces of knuckle of veal; moisten well with good boiling broth, and season with some sticks of celery, leeks, parsley, a very large onion stuck with two cloves, a few slices of turnip cut into dice, and one or two carrots also cut into dice. Let this broth boil gently for three hours, season with salt and pepper, and skim off the fat. When it becomes a good flavour drain it over the chops, which must be put in a large enough stewpan to contain the soup. Have some well-washed barley which has been boiling for a long time, and put it into the soup with the chops to boil for one hour. Skim before sending to table. Chop a little parsley very fine and add just before serving.
Source: Housewife's Referee ©1898